Classical
communication Models
Aristotle’s Rhetoric Model of Communication (384-322
B.C)
Aristotle focussed on the Speaker, Speech and Receiver which was
explained with the terms Ethos (speaker), Logos (the content of the message
itself) and Pathos (inheres in the audience).
Aristotle defines rhetoric as ‘the faculty of observing in any given
case the available means of persuasion’ (350 bce: Rhetoric 1.2.1). For Aristotle,
rhetoric leverages logos (logic and reason), pathos (appeals to emotion) and
ethos (character, ethics) to persuade audiences. (Soules, 2015)
Aristotle’s Model is
unidirectional or linear in nature which means there is no feedback.
This model was to propagate an idea or persuade the audience. It
emphasised on the speaker and the capacity to convey the message in a skilful
manner to an audience. It is said that Quintillian, a roman educator (CA 35-95
A.D.), built up on this model of Aristotle in his institute ‘Institutio Oratoria’ which was known for
its skills on advising a good speaker statesman in the ancient times.
However, in today’s world scholars have observed that rhetoric can often
be used for negative purposes. Marshall Soules says, “Rhetoric has a history of
abuse, and in our time ‘rhetoric’ often refers dismissively to language filled
with empty phrases and false sentiments. Ideally, rhetoric gives language
additional interest and impact and is judged by its effectiveness. (Soules, 2015)
In the later years, based on this model of Aristotle, research scholars
developed a more precise model which showed five elements and which is
popularly available on many educational sites.The model showed the Speaker, the Speech which is the message, the Occasion,
the Recipient Audience and the Effect the occurred in the Audience due to the Speech.
Linear
Models
Shannon and Weaver’s Model of Communication
This model was propagated by Claude Elwood Shannon and Warren Weaver while on
their work at Bell Laboratories. This model is considered to be one of the
earliest influential models in the field of communication and was developed in
1948. It is also called Shannon and Weaver's Mathematical Model.
It is said that Claude Elwood Shannon was working out on an effective way to
transmit electric signals. Shannon and Weaver also found that ‘static’ interferes while a telephonic conversation occurs. This was gradually developed into the concept of ‘noise’ in communication. Gradually, Shannon also introduced a mechanism in
the receiver which corrected the differences between the transmitted and the
reception signals- It is this mechanism which introduced a corrective technique
which gradually led to the concept of feed-back in the long run.
Shannon’s model is directed at solving the problem of “noise in the channel” when an electrical signal is transmitted from one machine to another. The small unlabeled box in the middle of the diagram represents the physical channel, such as a telephone line, fiber optic cable, or computer chip. (Paul Cobley, Peter J. Schulz, Theories and Models of Communication, Handbook of Communication Science)
Shannon emphasized that his ‘mathematical theory of communication’ is relevant only for understanding and solving the engineering problem of signal transmission, He refrained from any implication the solution of this problem could have or understanding the ‘semantic aspects of communication’. Indeed, he originally presented not ‘the’ but ‘a’ mathematical theory of communication (Shannon 1948), Leaving the selection of the holder definite article to Weaver, who put the book together out of Shannon’s papers. But Shannon’s reluctance to generalize his theory could not prevent his and Weaver’s ideas on ‘communication’ from being quickly and enthusiastically received as well as fervently rejected by social scientists (as regards reception, fakobson 1981; Sense 1969; and with respect to rejection, Hayles 1999).
However, the model introduced by Shannon and Weaver is linear in nature.
There is a sender, a channel and a receiver. There was no element of feedback
entailed, hence it is called linear.
Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver’s Model thus included the following
elements:
- A source
of information which produced a message (sender)
- A
transmitter which encoded the message into signals for transmission.
- A channel
through which the signals were to be transmitted
- A receiver
that decoded the message from the signals that were transmitted.
- A
destination where the message arrived after the decoding.
- The concept of 'Noise' that hampers or interferes when communication is occurring.
Problems with the Mathematical model of Claude Shannon and Warren
Weaver-
- Being a
linear model, there is no feedback
- As there
is no feedback, the clarity and the understanding of the decoded message was
questionable.
- Situational
or contextual noise at that point of time was not taken into concern.
- It is not
known as to how effective the received meaning was and if it lead to an affect
in behaviour or action of the recipient.
Harold Lasswell’s - Lasswell Model of Communication
Harold Lasswell, a professor at Yale Law School, was an American political scientist and communication theorist, whose model 'Lasswell model of Communication' was considered to be one among the influential models in the earlier days. It was developed somewhere around 1948 and was surrounded with a lot of research criticism and analysis.
Harold Lasswell's model is founded on a 5 W's approach. This model can be defined in just one statement – WHO says WHAT to WHOM
through WHICH channel with WHAT EFFECT.
Lasswell was primarily concerned with Mass Communication and Propoganda.
In this model, the focus was on the source and the channel through which
information was sent. While, effect was taken into consideration, there was no
concept of feedback. Hence, it is a linear model.
Lasswell’s model indicated that there was an effect of the communication
that occurred. It assured that Communication did not occur in a vacuum. Rather,
every message was send across with a purpose- and it gave rise to the concept
of ‘effect’. Since, Laswell was concerned with Propoganda, his focus was the
effect that communication led to. Effect here includes the observed changes
that occurred in the receiver due to the communication process that occurred.
Main characteristics of the Lasswell model are:
- A linear
Model
- It is
based on effect of the sender’s message on receiver.
Problems with Laswell’s Model-
- There is
no feedback for the message.
- It is very
linear in nature (researchers say communication is always in circular motion
because of feedback element)
- It
presents communication as more of a persuasive process rather than an
informative process as the focus is on the effect that the communication causes
on the receiver.
In his book, ‘Mass Communication in India’, Keval J. Kumar says, “Lasswell
saw communication as performing three functions:
- Surveillance
of the environment
- Co-relation
of components of society
- Cultural
transmissions between generations.
Such a mechanistic and effects approach to communication was to
influence communication theory for decades to come.”
David Berlo’s SMCR Model
In 1960, David Berlo elaborated on the Shannon and Weaver Mathematical
Model, and created another model which is called the SMCR model- ‘SENDER-
MESSAGE- CHANNEL- RECEIVER MODEL’ and published it in a book titled El Proceso de la Comunicación (The Process of Communication). Berlo’s model depicted how there were
several factors that influenced each element in the process of communication.
The source encodes the message through a channel which is decoded by the
receiver. This is a linear model. The stress is placed on the message which is
to be transmitted. David Berlo’s Model can ideally be used for Oral
Communication.
Some important elements of this model were:
He included the ‘Channel’ as his element as he foresaw the arrival of
mass media as the circulation of the Newspaper had already begun.
An important factor
of Berlo’s Model is that it shows there are external factors that influence the
entire process. For instance the Sender sends the message, but can be
influenced by the social system, communication skills, attitudes, etc.
The same
goes for the Message and the manner in which it is communicated. The content of the message and the way in which it is structured and delivered or transmitted matters. Here, Code is attributed to the form in which the Message may be communicated. Later researchers have attributed to Code as either textual, verbal or visual style of encoding one's message.
Berlo has also
shown the different ways in which communication can occur by showing different
aspects of the ‘Channel.’ He uses the five senses of the Human being to explain the channel through which the message is given.
The Receiver too receives his or her message based on
the factors that influence the receiver. The factors that create an influence on the Sender while sending a message are also factors that influence a Receiver and the manner in which the receiver receives the message. Sender and receiver are surrounded by factors that influence them individually which the message is sent across.
For instance, the source and the recipient communicate based on their communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, social system, culture- as the picture above shows.
Communication
skills:
If
an individual has good communication skills, the communication surely is better
as the receiver is able to grasp the message quickly.
Poor
communication skills can hamper a healthy communication.
Communication
skills include varied skills like fluent speaking, clear presentation, clear
reading/ writing, careful listening, avoiding clutter, cutting the other person
short, etc.
Attitude:
The
sender’s attitude is of equal importance as is the recipient’s attitude in
order to create the impact of the message.
A
person’s attitude depends on his/ her understanding of self, the other, and the
environment around. The attitude can create a whole lot of meaning and
influence the effect of the message. A sender and a recipient’s attitude
matters.
Knowledge:
Communication
can be powerful, when the individual communicating has in-depth knowledge of
the topic or the subject that one is talking about. This teamed with an open
attitude also allows a give and take of knowledge, sharing of view- points and
a better outcome of the communication.
Knowledge
on the subject of conversation is important, all the more, since today’s
technology does not permit to you go laxed. People verify and respond to
ignorance.
Social
Systems:
As
human beings, we are born into a family that belongs to a particular social
system. May be a particular family unit, community, schooling institute,
organisation, industry, etc. The individual’s location, socioeconomic status,
race, religion, societal function, are all influential factors.
Every
individual communicates and every recipient receives and interprets the message
according to these factors that are constantly within us and are an integral
part of us.
Culture:
As human
beings, we are born into a family that follows, certain traits that includes,
their faith practices, their beliefs, their community or ethnic orientations,
their values, the laws they abide with, the societal norms they follow, and
many other social factors. Cultural
nuances enhance any communication. What might be appealing and beautiful in one
culture, maybe highly derogatory in another culture.
While
communicating, it is advisable to understand the recipient of the message and
the cultural background before the message is spoken. On the other hand, a
recipient too must understand, the communicator’s cultural context before
retaliating or reacting.
Problems with Berlo’s Model
- It is a
linear Model so, there is no concept of feedback.
- There is
no concept of Noise or Barriers in this model of communication
- Some
scholars mention the lack of the concept of the sixth sense or feelings that
can effect communication.
