Brief History of the English Press in India

Brief History of the English Press in India

While journalism and its roots have traces in Ancient India as a whole. The concept of journalism as it exists today can be traced to the British rule in India. It is said that the newspaper was brought by the Britishers and forced upon us. The existing nationalist idea didn’t entail the learning of a foreign language ‘English’ which had a derogatory term of reference in the Indian context known as Mlechhas’ language or the language of immoral degraded people. The initial English papers did not have Indian content. They began with gossip of Officials, poetry and some snippets related to Britain and Europe.

However, the East India Company, the trade rulers who had a large control over different parts of India were unhappy about the way news was published. They were suspicious of all journalists and newspapers as they feared criticism. Secondly, the newspaper exposed the private lives of many Britishers which angered them and led them to suppress the same. The slow rise in the conscientisation of Indians to fight for freedom saw to many freedom fighters using the press to write about it both in English and in vernacular language. This further miffed the East India Company. Thus, journalism paved a way in the conscientisation and the bringing together of the Indians for an India freed from the rule of the British.

This write-up focuses on journalism in the English Language and its history in India. While, the historical roots remain the same, the focus in this article has been primarily English newspapers and their contribution to journalism in Indian History.

A historical route of English Journalism in India

Historically the first venture was by William Bolts who started the first newspaper, in 1776, but could not sustain himself. He was an ex-employee of East India Company and had to abort the attempt as he came under scrutiny of the East India company.

After this failed attempt, on January 29, 1780, another individual, James Augustus Hicky started another newspaper called the Bengal Gazette or the Calcutta General Advertiser, which is today considered as the first English Newspaper in India. Self-proclaimed as a “weekly political and commercial paper open to all parties but influenced by none”, the paper included news snippets from England, letters from local and rural readers, scandalous gossips, a poet’s column, and a space for Hicky to communicate with his readers. The scandalous gossips about private lives of Britishers earned Hicky the enmity among his own. He often used nicknames for particular British officials and notable personalities in his newspaper.

In the same year, i.e. 1780, as a set back and as a stiff competition appeared another newspaper with better content presentation called The Indian Gazette by Peter Read and B. Messinck. Hicky also fell in the bad books of Warren Hastings, the Governor-General after having written against the Governor himself, along with ‘Simeon Droz, Colonel Thomas Dean Pearse and a Swedish Missionary, John Zachariah Kiernander’ (Natarajan, 1955). 

Hicky’s vicious writings against many top officials brought suit after suit on him, to an extent that he was imprisoned, but he still wrote from the prison. However, the incidents took a toll and Hicky was reduced to utter poverty which gradually crushed the newspaper itself within a span of two years. 

“Four years later followed the Calcutta Gazette, published under the direct patronage of Government, and in the following year, came the Bengal Journal and a monthly, the Oriental Magazine of Calcutta Amusements. With the Calcutta Chronicle which was published in 1786, there were four weekly newspapers and one monthly magazine published from Calcutta.” (Natarajan, 1955)

In 1785, Richard Johnson, the Government Printer started the first newspaper of Madras called the Madras Courier.

In 1789, The Bombay Herald, Bombay (currently Mumbai’s) first newspaper was published which was followed by The Courier in 1790, which carried advertisements in the Gujarati language. Bombay Gazette another paper was published a year later in 1791, but was gradually merged with the Bombay Herald for purposes of Official notifications.

The Madras Courier had a smooth run for almost ten years, until it was followed by the printing of another newspaper called the Madras Gazette in 1795 by R. Williams and another paper called the India Herald. However, the India Herald ran into troubled waters as it was unauthorised and the owner Humphreys was deported to England. However, it is said that he managed to escape the ship. The Madras Gazette too underwent serious troubles with the government trying to gag its movements with an order to submit the content of the newspaper for scrutiny before its publication. Stringent measures were taken and free postage facilities were withdrawn from the paper.

The newspapers primarily contained material of interest to the foreign population in India. They were hardly more than 100 or 200 in circulation unlike today. If a person who was not in good terms or without the acknowledgement of Government officials, started a newspaper, then,  he was deported forthright. On the other hand, if a newspaper erred by printing something that irked the officials, the primary punishment was the cancellation of all postal privileges, the second step was a pre-censorship and gradually deportation. Papers like the Bombay Gazette who ran into trouble due to an article written on the conduct of the police were asked to send proof sheets for scrutiny before publication, while, those of the likes of William Duane, were deported.

The British Government and the East Indian company were terrified of the press and the bad publicity it got them which led to stringent actions. There came a point where under the bureaucracy of Lord Wellesley, the Press was suppressed or in other words it was put under rigid control. By 1807 more rigid rules surfaced to control the press. However, the newspaper printing continued.

It is said that in the year 1791, in Bengal, William Duane acquired the Bengal Journal in partnership with Messrs Dimkin and Cassan. He was admonished for printing the news of the death of Lord Cornwallis which was considered to be a rumour. While on the verge of being deported, it was confirmed by a French agent, M. Fumeron that the Colonel had indeed died, which led to the deportation being stalled. However, William Duane could not continue in his position as editor and he gradually started another paper called the ‘Indian World’. But William Duane was already under scrutiny and was harassed time and again gradually leading to his forced deportation along with his three adopted kids from India.

Bengal Hurkaru was another weekly paper which began in 1795, but became a daily newspaper on April 29, 1819 with a gradual circulation of approximately 882 copies. In 1798, Dr Charles Maclean, who had started the Bengal Hurkaru, was initially detained, but despite the apology rendered, was deported. This deportation gradually in the long run led to the downfall of Lord Wellesley, under whom gagging of the press had turned into a common feature. The primary reason being, Dr Maclean published the case of Lord Wellesley in England. However, the world digital library mentions that the paper mostly catered to the British population in India and a few members of the Bengali community and that it had liberal views and advocated a free dialogue on the topics of education and social issues. This could have been the outcome of the initial hiccups the paper had to undergo with the printing of varied views initially.

By the time, Lord Hastings took up as Governor General in 1813 years later, many newspapers were stringently already under control of the authorities. Although, Hastings was considered to be far more liberal as compared to prior British officials. Thus, despite the numerous deportations, gagging, threats, raids and imprisonments, the press was not to be suppressed at the hands of a gagging tyrant and rose with anonymity in the form of books, papers and pamphlets without names of the author nor the printer.

The years between 1813 and 1818 saw a strategic increase in publications in different languages. Due to an argument that happened between the then Chief Secretary and Press Censor, William Butterworth Bailey and Mr Heatly, son of an European British Subject and an Indian mother, and the proprietor editor of a newspaper in Calcutta called the ‘Morning Post’, the laws that censored the press went through changes again. The heated argument was pursued by Mr Heatly who refused to edit his writings given the fact that he was an Indian and not a British national and hence not subject to the rules of censorship. 

In an atmosphere like this, Lord Hastings, finally took a very important decision which changed the then aggressive scenario of Press Gag. Press censorship was gradually dispensed by a regulation issued on August 19, 1818, and the discretion of the matters being printed was left to the Editors themselves. It was however, warned that the editors would be held for any article that was published in flouting of the rules that had existed. He editors were to submit a copy of their publication in the Chief Secretary’s office.

It was almost around this time, that Indian began entering the foray of Newspaper journalism. We must remember that Press already existed from the time the Press had already stepped into Goa and a lot of Christian literature and books were printed along with a gradual transition towards other books in different corners of India. But News journalism by Indians took time. 

Indian English Journalism

In 1813, the Anglican and Presbyterian churches were established under license in India. By 1814, a Presbyterian church minister, Rev Samuel James Bryce, got the ownership of the ‘Asiatic Mirror’. He too landed up in a controversy due to the article printed in his magazine.

During the period, Raja Rammohan Roy the stalwart Indian Freedom fighter made an appearance. In 1818, Ganga Kishore (Ganghadar) Bhattacharya, a native of Bahar village, near Serampore, Bengal, started the first Bangla weekly, ‘Bangal Gazette,’ with support from Raja Rammohan Roy.  He owned a press called Bengali printing press along with a business partner. He had a series of books printed too and was held in high esteem. However, the newspaper was barely in print for a year. In the same year, John Burton and James  Mackenzie attained the rights to publish ‘The Guardian’.The condition to print this particular paper was that matters of morality would take precedence over other topics.

Meanwhile, the Baptist Missionaries of Serampore began their printing venture by publishing a vernacular paper in Bengali language, called the Samachar Durpan,  a monthly magazine in Bengali called ‘Dig-Durshan’ and another English periodical, termed ‘Friend of India’. Dig Durshan and Friend of India succumbed to financial pressures by the year 1827. However, it is said that Samachar Durpan, which was a paper primarily meant for the propogation of Christian Faith, had a long run till 1840. The reason being that despite its Christian outlook, this paper carried a vast amount of ‘information from 60 stations in the Zillas of Bengal’. (Natarajan, 1955)

Another Britisher, James Silk Buckingham known as a man of principal due to his protest against the carrying of slaves when he was commander of a convoy of ships, started the Calcutta Journal. It was biweekly of 8 pages. It is said that he described the editors functions as, “to admonish the Governors of their duties to warn them furiously of their faults and to tell disagreeable truths.” (Quoted in Natarajan, 1955). His stand led to him being deported in the year 1823.

Raja Rammohan Roy is credited with the publishing of the English Periodical, ‘Brahminical Magazine’, to counter the Serampore Missionaries Christian propoganda. While, Roy did have other papers too in vernacular language, this was the English paper. He was an open minded individual but a man with an upright view of life who stood for social causes. He believed in educating the people of India in English and raising them to a level where they could participate in the administration. He even started an English school in a place called Sudipara. He teamed up with Alexander Duff, a Christian missionary, from the Church of Scotland to start a college dedicated to teaching English and Liberal Sciences. He was quite selective about the choice of his teachers both Foreigners and Indians. Alexander Duff taught his students the art of questioning and rational thinking. It is the activism of Roy’s writings and assertion on the topic of Sati along with like minded leaders that social evils like Sati which had got engrained into Religion were gradually banned by the British.

There were other newspapers, like John Bull (1822) by eight officials of the East India Company, The Scotsman in the East (1824), by Dr. Muston, Weekly Gleaner (1824), by Patrick Crichton, The Columbian Press Gazette (1824), by Monte de Rozario, Quarterly Oriental Magazine (1825), by Dr Bryce, Bengal Chronicle (1826), by James Sutherland, Kaleidoscope (1828) by David Drummond and H.L.V. de Rozario, Calcutta Chronicle (1827) by William Adam, Calcutta Gazette and Commercial advertiser (1828) by Villiers Holcroft and the Gospel Investigator (1828) by Emmanuel Robam. The ‘Calcutta Chronicle’ by William Adam also found his license being withdrawn. William Adam was a good friend of Raja Rammohan Roy and had strong views on certain issues which lead to a tiff between him and the government.

Meanwhile, when Raja Rammohan Roy had ceased printing, the Bengal Herald or Weekly Intelligence was launched by Robert Montgomery Martin and Neil Rutton Haldar which was printed in English, Bengali, Persian and Nagri. By the year 1830, due to stringent laws, threats and financial crisis many newspapers either closed down or were merged into others.

 

Under the governorship pf Sir John Malcolm, two official papers saw the light of the day, Namely, the Bombay Government Gazette and the Calcutta Gazette. The Bombay Courier which had published all Government advertisements had complained about a loss of 4000 pounds, so as an economical measure, these papers were brought into existence. During this period, other newspapers also came into existence.

Meanwhile, on January 6, 1832, Bal Shastri Jambhekar launched the first Anglo-Marathi Weekly called the Bombay Durpun in association with Rugoonath Hurryochunderjee and Junardhan Wessoodewjee which lasted till 1840. It was bilingual with both English and Marathi.

Another popular newspaper which is one of the leading English dailies in India started in 1838. Encyclopaedia Britannica states that, The Times of India, which was “originally called The Bombay Times and Journal of Commerce, was founded in 1838 to serve the British residents of western India. At first published twice weekly, the paper became a daily in 1851 and changed its name to The Times of India in 1861.

Dadabhai Naoroji, was a founder of the ‘Voice of India’ and the ‘Indian Spectator’ which he began in Mumbai (then Bombay) in 1885 which gave primary focus to the happenings in London as compared to local events which were mentioned briefly. Thus, Social reformers actually used media as a powerful tool in wringing in reforms and raising the ante against social evils.

While, most of the Britishers initially started the papers, the people of the Country, gradually took over with great gusto the pen- a tool mightier than the sword. The newspapers indeed became a channel of Information education and major contributor in the freedom struggle under the patronage of Stalwart leaders. Thus, after a string of newspapers that were mostly begun by Britishers themselves, a band of Indians took over with the Pen in various corners of India. Among the most prominent names, we have papers like ‘The Leader’ from Allahabad, ‘The Bombay Chronicle’, ‘The Hindustan times’, etc.

Founded by Madan Mohan Malviya on October 24, 1909 in Allahabad, ‘The Leader’ had a long run till Sept. 6, 1967 and was considered to be an influential newspaper in English run by Indians due to its politically charged stance. The Paper also carried numerous writings by Mahatma Gandhi. The chief-editor was C. Y. Chintamani. It is said that Motilal Nehru was also partly associated with this newspaper. However, he and C. Y. Chintamani had a clash which gradually led to Motilal Nehru quitting the Paper. Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya as he was popularly known as was an Educationist, Lawyer and politician. He is remembered as the founder of the Banaras Hindu University.

Another English Paper which was known for its raconteur and its political content especially during the upheavals and the freedom struggles was The Bombay Chronicle started by a lawyer, Sir Pherozeshah Mehta. This paper had a run from 1910 to 1959.

The Hindustan Times is another paper which was involved equally in the contribution towards the cause of Freedom. It was founded by Sunder Singh of the Akali Movement and had for in its managing committee the dynamic freedom fighter, Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya and Master Tara Singh. It is said that Mahatma Gandhi was himself present at the launch of this Paper. This paper survived the Test of time and exists even today. It is said that due to Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya’s dynamism, that The Hindustan Times was able to launch its Hindi version called the Hindustan Dainik in 1936.

J. Ouchterlony started a weekly English Newspaper from Madras between 1836 and 1859 called ‘The Spectator’. The paper began its daily version only in 1850 only to be merged with another paper called the Madras Times by the year 1859. Madras times was historically known to be a liberal people that did not aim at a rivalry with the Britishers not aggravate the Struggle for Freedom.

The Hindoo Patriot was another English newspaper which played a very important role in conscientising people about the Indigo planters who oppressed the peasants, the imperial laws like the immigration bill, etc,. The paper was initially published on January 6, 1853 by Madhusudan Roy under the editorship of Girish Chandra Ghosh. But, it was later purchased by Harish Chandra Mukherjee. However, Harish Chandra named his Brother Haran Chandra as the Proprietor to shield himself from the Military Audit General under whom he officiated.

It is said the Girish Chandra Ghosh started another English newspaper in 1862 called The Bengalee. This paper too supported the freedom struggle and did have a good circulation. However, it is said that when it took a moderate stand on Swadeshi, the circulation was hit. This newspaper saw various phases as it was made into a morning and evening edition for urban and rural areas with the names The Bengalee for the morning and The Calcutta Evening News for the evening paper. However, the paper The Bengalee could not survive and was finally again made into one newspaper and renamed as The Star of India.

Another journal called the Hindu Intelligencer in English was edited by Kashiprasad Ghosh and was considered to be a mouthpiece of the Bhadralok community. Not mush is known of this paper though.

Amrita Bazaar Patrika is another English newspaper that contributed greatly to journalism and especially to the freedom struggle in India. The paper was initially in Bengali language but gradually became a bilingual and began its print in English. Today the place where this paper was initially printed exists in Dhaka, Bangladesh. It was a weekly printed by Moti Lal and Sisir Ghosh in Bengali and launched on 20 February, 1868.  It is said that both Sisir and Moti Lal vehemently opposed the economic exploitation of India and the restriction on an individual’s civil liberties. They were close friends of Bal Gangadhar Tilak and went into great depths at exposing the atrocities and loop holes of the British Administration in India. It was a weekly that became a daily in 1891 and was one among the first one’s in India to enter into the genre of Investigative journalism. Despite many attempts at trying to dissuade the nationalistic activities, including cases of sedition and imprisonment on its editors at various times, this paper stood the test and kept on promulgating the cause of India’s freedom.

The Statesman is another English newspaper that emerged from the merging of two newspapers called The Englishman and Friend of India. It was started in 1875. The Statesman was a paper worth acknowledgement. It opposed the decision of making Delhi the capital of India instead of Calcutta (now Kolkata). Ian M Stephens, the editor of the newspaper, who was disappointed that the world was not taking note of the drastic conditions of the Bengal famine (1943- 1944) due to the deliberate clamp on the freedom of the Press, printed a group of pictures which actually put Bengal famine in the limelight much to the dismay of the Administration. It is said The Statesman stood its ground in also opposing Indira Gandhi during the Emergency.

The history of English Journalism has a glowing history transcending from its British origins to its Spirit of fire emanating from its heroic participation in the freedom struggle of India. While the initial stages showed it more like a tool for Yellow journalism, the Press grew into a mammoth instrument that strengthened and accompanied the people in the freedom struggle.

The slogan, “the pen is mightier than the sword” proved itself true in the struggle for freedom, the demand for economic liberties and civil rights as citizens of a country and right to freedom of speech. It is the obligation of every citizen of this country to uphold these rights as these were gifted to us through the ordeal and zeal of great socially reforming journalists of great calibre.

History of Journalism in India

History of Journalism in India

The following article is primarily written for my Undergrad students of BJMC- Introduction to Journalism, Unit 1.4.

Beginnings of journalism in a gist

The beginnings of journalism or rather reporting of news is traced to Ancient Rome around 59 BCE where notices and public speeches carved on stone or metal were displayed in public places as means of information to the people. These were called the Acta Diurna translated from latin as ‘daily acts’. It is said that in the Tang dynasty of China, a ‘Bao’ or in simple words a kind of a ‘court circular’ was sent to officials. These circulars seemed to have been appearing in varied forms in different dynasties right upto 1911.

The Encyclopaedia Britannica also states that “the first regularly published newspapers appeared in German cities and in Antwerp". Among the first, is the German newspaper called 'Relation aller Furnemmen und gedenckwurdigen Historien' in and around 1605. The first English newspaper, the Weekly News, was published in 1622. One of the first daily newspapers, The Daily Courant, appeared in 1702.”[1] It is also said that initially when newspapers began, there were many hinderances both due to censorship and restrictions from Authorities. Many newspapers did begin and shut down. However, the growing demand for newspapers due to the gradual spread of literacy and the invention of the press promulgated the printing of newspapers in bulk. These were the beginnings of what in future turned out to be the foundations of journalism.

Meanwhile, by the 17^th century, journals with opinionated pieces on current affairs saw a circulation. This was the birth of the concept of Magazines. Among such journals are the names of Tatler (1709–11) and the Spectator (1711–12). While, magazines began as a costly affair, the concept of advertisement revenue drastically transformed the entire scenario, slashing the price of the Magazines. Meanwhile, a lot of cheap, mass circulation magazines began appearing in the 1830s’. Gradually, other magazines, illustrated magazines, women’s magazines were produced. Thus, began the era of writers, printers, publishers and journalists. As publishing and sales grew and the demand for news and features grew, news agencies arose that provided news for a cost to varied publishing firms. The telegraph, the telephone, gradually the newer forms of technology led to the growth in communication of news at the earliest. The internet has led to instant news and news circulation.

History of Journalism in India

Ancient Traces of Journalism

In India, the historical traces of written documentation and records go right up to the Indus Valley civilizations. It is said the land grants were done by using carvings on copper plates and etching on various surfaces of wood, bone, ivory, etc,. Rock Edicts and Pillar edicts were also means of information during the times of Emperor Ashoka. It is also historically stated that Asoka employed overseers, secret emissaries and spies to gather information for him. It was tradition that a king gathered in his court or darbar to gather news from his prime minister, his councillors, and his officials. Wandering ministrels, merchants and spies were harbingers of news. While some would only reveal news to the king, the others would reveal it before the king and his trusted ministers.

The kings also had writ writers among his ministers, who would write down the king’s orders. “The kings writs were in reply to communications from ministers and viceroys, and in them, guidance was given on action to be taken by way of granting remissions or licenses or issuing a general proclamation. (Natarajan, 1955)

Therefore, the traces of journalism could be traced back to the ancient civilisations and times. Communication plays a very important role in governance and it has existed for centuries. Even in the sultanate period, this way of functioning always continued. The kings always wanted to protect their kingdoms or broaden their kingdoms. In either cases, spies played an important role.

During the Sultanate period, the Barid-i-Mamalik or commissioner of intelligence used to serve the authorities with the information of the empire. The munhis or spies of Sultan Alauddin Khalji communicated even the most trivial things to the Sultan. The Mughal government had a network of news-services-the waqai-navis, sawanih-navis, and khufia-navis. In addition to them there were harkarah and akhbar-navis for serving the royalties with general information. The bhats, kathaks and narasundars provided the people with social and cultural information. (Padmanabhan, 2011)

News, edicts and verdicts were proclaimed in the public through announcements before people who gathered together at the beat of the drum. Inscriptions and records were maintained on rocks and coins, monuments ad temples. All these were the forerunners of the full- fledged journalism that we have today.

The Arrival of the Press in India

The concept of printing came to India only much after the first press by Guttenberg printed the Bible. In the year, 1556, at the behest of the Christian Missionaries, the first press was installed by the Jesuits in Saint Paul’s College, Old Goa which resulted in the publication of Conclusiones Philosophicas.  

 
It is said that the press was initially meant to be delivered to the Emperor of Abyssinia. But he was not keen on receiving the Christian missionaries who accompanied the press. And this turned out to be for the benefit of India. 

 
Thus, began the initial stages of bulk printing which gradually grew. By the 17^th century, large scale printing had already commenced in India in different languages but mostly catering to books on Faith.

Beginning of Journalism in India

It is also said that as compared to many other Western countries, the means of communication were less developed in India. The Britishers who colonised India, began focussing on building transportation means primarily for business and monetary concerns. They wanted the raw resources of India.  This gradually led to the formation of roadways, waterways and railways. It was Dalhousie who initiated the work the electric Telegraph for faster communication in India. The East India Company massively used all means to broaden their trades. Thus, journalism too was aided by all these means.

Historically, journalism was actually initiated by the Britishers. It is said that the newspaper was brought by the Britishers and forced upon us. The existing nationalist idea didn’t entail the learning of a foreign language ‘English’ which had a derogatory term of reference in the Indian context known as Mlechhas’ language or the language of immoral degraded people. However, the East India Company were not for it. They were suspicious of all journalists and newspapers as they feared criticism. Secondly, the newspaper exposed the private lives of many Britishers which angered them and led them to suppress the same. The slow rise in the conscientisation of Indians to fight for freedom saw to many freedom fighters using the press to write about it both in English and in vernacular language.

In 1776, William Bolts attempted to start the first newspaper, but could not sustain himself, and had to abort the attempt as he came under scrutiny of the East India company.

On January 29, 1780, another individual, James Augustus Hicky started another newspaper called the Bengal Gazette or the Calcutta General Advertiser, which is today considered as the first English Newspaper in India. Self-proclaimed as a “weekly political and commercial paper open to all parties but influenced by none”, the paper included news snippets from England, letters from local and rural readers, scandalous gossips, a poet’s column, and a space for Hicky to communicate with his readers. The scandalous gossips about private lives of Britishers earned Hicky the enmity among his own. He often used nicknames for particular British officials and notable personalities in his newspaper.

In the same year, i.e. 1780,  as a set back and as a stiff competition appeared another newspaper with better content presentation called the Indian Gazette by Peter Read and B. Messinck. Hicky also fell in the bad books of Warren Hastings, the Governor-General after having written against the Governor himself, along with ‘Simeon Droz, Colonel Thomas Dean Pearse and a Swedish Missionary, John Zachariah Kiernander’ (Natarajan, 1955). Hicky’s vicious writings against many top officials brought suit after suit on him, to an extent that he was imprisoned, but he still wrote from the prison. However, the incidents took a toll and Hicky was reduced to utter poverty which gradually crushed the newspaper itself within a span of two years.  

“Four years later followed the Calcutta Gazette, published under the direct patronage of Government, and in the following year, came the Bengal Journal and a monthly, the Oriental Magazine of Calcutta Amusements. With the Calcutta Chronicle which was published in 1786, there were four weekly newspapers and one monthly magazine published from Calcutta.” (Natarajan, 1955)

In 1785, Richard Johnson, the Government Printer started the first newspaper of Madras called the Madras Courier.

In 1789, The Bombay Herald, Bombay (currently Mumbai’s) first newspaper was published which was followed by The Courier in 1790, which carried advertisements in the Gujarati language. Bombay Gazette another paper was published a year later in 1791, but was gradually merged with the Bombay Herald for purposes of Official notifications.

The Madras Courier had a smooth run for almost ten years, until it was followed by the printing of another newspaper called the Madras Gazette in 1795 by R. Williams and another paper called the India Herald. But, the India Herald ran into troubled waters as it was unauthorised and the owner Humphreys was deported to England. However, it is said that he managed to escape the ship. The Madras Gazette too underwent serious troubles with the government trying to gag its movements with an order to submit the content of the newspaper for scrutiny before its publication. Stringent measures were taken and free postage facilities were withdrawn from the paper.

The newspapers primarily contained material of interest to the foreign population in India. They were hardly more than 100 or 200 in circulation unlike today. What is to be noted over here is that despite the fact that there were no rules laid down by law, if a person started a newspaper who was not in good terms or without the acknowledgement of Government officials, he was deported forthright. On the other hand, if a newspaper erred by printing something that irked the officials, the primary punishment was the cancellation of all postal privileges, the second step was a pre-censorship and gradually deportation. And papers like the Bombay Gazette who ran into trouble due to an article written on the conduct of the Police were asked to send proof sheets for scrutiny before publication, while, those of the likes of William Duane, were deported.

The British Government and the East Indian company were terrified of the press and the bad publicity it got them which led to stringent actions. There came a point where under the bureaucracy of Lord Wellesley, the Press was suppressed or in other words it was put under rigid control. By 1807 more rigid rules surfaced to control the press. The Marquees of Wellesley took upon himself the role of a dominant ruler in India much to the displeasure of Tipu Sultan, the French and the European community in India. Lord Wellesley feared that the press provided news to the likes of Tipu Sultan. And in his attempt to stop news from circulating, he began the gagging of newspapers. However, the more he attempted the gagging, the number of anonymous papers and pamphlets rose.  

It is said that in the year 1791, in Bengal, William Duane acquired the Bengal Journal in partnership with Messrs Dimkin and Cassan. He was admonished for printing the news of the death of Lord Cornwallis which was considered to be a rumour. While on the verge of being deported, it was confirmed by a French agent, M Fumeron that the Colonel had indeed died, which led to the deportation being stalled. However, William Duane could not continue in his position as editor and he gradually started another paper called the ‘Indian World’. But William Duane was already under scrutiny and was harassed time and again gradually leading to his forced deportation along with his three adopted kids from India.

In 1798, another individual Dr Charles Maclean, who had started 'The Bengal Hurkaru', was initially detained, but despite the apology rendered, was deported. This deportation gradually in the long run led to the downfall of Lord Wellesley, under whom gagging of the press had turned into a common feature. The primary reason being, Dr Maclean published the case of Lord Wellesley in England.

By the time, Lord Hastings took up as Governor General in 1813 years later, many newspapers were stringently already under control of the authorities. Although, Hastings was considered to be far more liberal as compared to prior British officials. Thus, despite the numerous deportations, gagging, threats, raids and imprisonments, the press was not to be suppressed at the hands of a gaging tyrant and rose with anonymity in the form of books, papers and pamphlets without names of the author nor the printer.

The years between 1813 and 1818 saw a strategic increase in publications in different languages. Due to an argument that happened between the then Chief Secretary and Press Censor, William Butterworth Bailey and Mr Heatly, son of an European British Subject and an Indian mother,  and the proprietor editor of a newspaper in Calcutta called the ‘Morning Post’, the laws that censored the press went through changes again. The heated argument was pursued by Mr Heatly who refused to edit his writings given the fact that he was an Indian and not a British national and hence not subject to the rules of censorship. In an atmosphere like this, Lord Hastings, finally took a very important decision which changed the then aggressive scenario of Press Gag. 

Press censorship was gradually dispensed by a regulation issued on August 19, 1818, and the discretion of the matters being printed was left to the Editors themselves. It was however, warned that the editors would be held for any article that was published in flouting of the rules that had existed. He editors were to submit a copy of their publication in the Chief Secretary’s office.

In 1813, the Anglican and Presbyterian churches were established under license in India. By 1814, a Presbyterian church minister, Rev Samuel James Bryce, got the ownership of the ‘Asiatic Mirror’. He too landed up in a controversy due to the article printed in his magazine.

During this period, Raja Rammohan Roy the stalwart Indian Freedom fighter made an appearance. In 1818, Ganga Kishore (Ganghadar) Bhattacharya, a native of Bahar village, near Serampore, Bengal, started the first Bangla weekly, ‘Bangal Gazette,’ with support from Raja Rammohan Roy.  He owned a press called Bengali printing press along with a business partner. He had a series of books printed too and was held in high esteem. However, the newspaper was barely in print for a year. In the same year, John Burton and James  Mackenzie attained the rights to publish ‘The Guardian’.The condition to print this particular paper was that matters of morality would take precedence over other topics.

Meanwhile, the Baptist Missionaries of Serampore began their printing venture by publishing a vernacular paper in Bengali language, called the Samachar Durpan,  a monthly magazine in Bengali called ‘Dig-Durshan’ and another English periodical, termed ‘Friend of India’. Dig Durshan and Friend of India succumbed to financial pressures by the year 1827. However, it is said that Samachar Durpan, which was a paper primarily meant for the propogation of Christian Faith, had a long run till 1840. The reason being that despite its Christian outlook, this paper carried a vast amount of ‘information from 60 stations in the Zillas of Bengal’. (Natarajan, 1955)

Another Britisher James Silk Buckingham known as a man of principal due to his protest against the carrying of slaves when he was commander of a convoy of ships, started the Calcutta Journal. It was biweekly of 8 pages. It is said that he described the editors functions as, “to admonish the Governors of their duties to warn them furiously of their faults and to tell disagreeable truths.” (Quoted in Natarajan, 1955). His stand led to him being deported in the year 1823. But it is said that Buckingham did not quit journalism and started another paper in England called the ‘Oriental Herald’ where is continuously exposed the administration in India. Buckingham and Raja Rammohan Roy shared a great camaraderie together and had mutual respect for each other’s views.

Raja Rammohan Roy was a social reformer, and had gained a vast experience at a young age due to his travels. He contributed articles to many weeklies and periodicals. He took a strong stand against the abominable practice of Sati. Sati was gradually banned in 1829 by Lord William Bentick. But one could credit Raja Rammohan Roy for being a forerunner as prepared the minds of the people against Sati which was a ritual prominently practiced as an inherent part of religion. Although, he had been opposed on many fronts, Raja Rammohan Roy continued his fight against Sati. He also propagated the learning of English and other social reforms. This opposition by many Hindus, could be one of the reasons that he did not directly involve his name along with Gangadhar at the publication of the Bengal Gazette albeit the fact that he was the brainchild behind the paper.

Raja Rammohan Roy was also vary of Christian literature printed by the Missionaries of Serampore. This gave him an added reason to write and publish. Furthermore, it is said that he was interested in making the Government aware of the problems of the natives so that they could be closer to the people by understanding their needs. And for this “the role model was British rule as it is obtained in the UK. Incidentally Raja Rammohan Roy and many of his contemporaries and friends, notably Dadabhai Naoroji and Surendranath Banerjee were unashamed admirers of the liberal establishment in Britain and individually set themselves the task of prevailing upon the crown to extend the system to India. Their ultimate aim to have more Indians participate in administration.” (G.S.Bhargava, 2005)

Raja Rammohan Roy is credited with the publishing of three newspapers. While the date is a bit disputed, he started ‘Sambaad Kaumidi’ along with Bhowani Charan Banerjee in 1821. After about 13 years Bowani parted ways with Roy, as a result it was temporarily stalled by May 1822. He also started another Persian weekly called the ‘Mirat-ul-Akhbar’ and the English Periodical, ‘Brahminical Magazine’, to counter the Serampore Missionaries. It is also said the Roy translated many Sanskrit texts into Bengali and published them. He with like minded social reformers spoke against many social evils. “In Andhra Pradesh, which was then a part of the Madras Presidency, The Raja’s Ideas and actions inspired the movement for prohibition of child marriage and popularisation of widow remarriage. He was the role model for the leaders of this movement notable Kandukuri Veeraisalingam.” (G.S.Bhargava, 2005)  

 

Bhowani also gradually started another Paper called Samachar Chandrika. After Roy’s initiative in publishing  the Persian paper, there were other vernacular papers called “Jam-i- Jahan-Numa in Persian and another in Urdu, Hurree Hur Dutt with Lalla Sadha Sook as editor the Shams-ul- Akhbar  by Moothur Mohan Mitter and  Munneeram Thacoor followed suit”. (G.S.Bhargava, 2005)

In Mumbai (July, 1822) Mumbai-Na-Samachar, a Gujarati paper was started by Fardoonji Marzban which gradually became Bombay Samachar. The paper was initially a weekly but gradually became a biweekly in its long run. Fardoonji, a Parsi Scholar, can be righty attributed with the growth of the Gujarati literature as he not only printed a paper but also a Gujarati Calendar. However, it is to be noted that even Mirat -ul-Akhbar landed in trouble with the Government and Roy had to cease the publication.

There were other newspapers, like John Bull (1822) by eight officials of the East India Company, The Scotsman in the East (1824), by Dr. Muston, Weekly Gleaner(1824), by Patrick Crichton, The Columbian Press Gazette (1824), by Monte de Rozario, Quarterly Oriental Magazine (1825), by Dr Bryce, Bengal Chronicle (1826), by James Sutherland, Kaleidoscope (1828) by David Drummond and H.L.V. de Rozario, Oodunt Martund (1826)- a newspaper in Hindi by Joogul Kishore Sookal, Calcutta Chronicle (1827) by William Adam, Calcutta Gazette and Commercial advertiser (1828) by Villiers Holcroft and the Gospel Investigator (1828) by Emmanuel Robam.  Sookal who printed the Oodunt Martund – a Hindi newspaper, appealed for a concession in postal fees for the first 8 copies of his paper, but was rejected. The ‘Calcutta Chronicle’ by William Adam also found his license being withdrawn. William Adam was a good friend of Raja Rammohan Roy and had strong views on certain issues which lead to a tiff between him and the government.

 Meanwhile, when Raja Rammohan roy had ceased printing, the Bengal Herald or Weekly intelligence was launched by Robert Montgomery Martin and Neil Rutton Haldar which was printed in English, Bengali, Persian and Nagri. Another weekly ‘Banga Dhoot’ was published in Bengali by Dwarkanath Tagore an initiative which found the interest of Raja Rammohan Roy himself. The Reformer was published by Prasanna Kumar. By the year 1830, due to stringent laws, threats and financial crisis many newspapers either closed down or were merged into others.

Under the governorship of Sir John Malcolm, two official papers saw the light of the day, Namely, the Bombay Government Gazette and the Calcutta Gazette. The Bombay Courier which had published all Government advertisements had complained about a loss of 4000 pounds, so as an economical measure, these papers were brought into existence. During this period, other newspapers also came into existence. The Jam-e-Jamshed by Pestonji Maneqji began in 1831 and is still in circulation, and The Mumbai Samachar became a daily in 1832. 

 

Meanwhile, on January 6, 1832,  Bal Shastri Jambhekar launched the first Anglo-Marathi Weekly called the Bombay Durpun in association with Rugoonath Hurryochunderjee and Junardhan Wessoodewjee which lasted till 1840. It was bilingual with both English and Marathi. The other papers also included Dnyanprakash by Krishnaji Trymbak Ranade on February 12, 1849, in Marathi amidst others.

The Mumbai Vartaman was initiated by Nowraki Dorabji Chandaru in 1880. In 1884, Din Bandhu was printed as a voice of the labour classes by Narayan Meghaji Lokhande which reached a circulation of around 1650 copies. In 1881, freedom fighter Bal Gangadhar Tilak started the Kesari, a newspaper that gained a large prominence during the freedom struggle of India and reached upto a mighty circulation of 22,000 copies  by 1908.

In Karnataka, the first Kannada newspaper to be printed was the Mangaluru Samachara by Hermann Friedrich Mogling in the year 1843. While Rajyasamacharam was the first newspaper in Malyalam printed in the year 1847 for the purposes of the propogation of Christianity by Hermann Gundert in Thalassery. This was followed by Pashchimodayam (1847), Deepika (1887) and Malayala Manorama (1890) by Kandathil Varghese Mappillai.

The first Newspaper in Tamil Language was started by G. Subramanya Aiyer, in the year 1882 and was called the Swadesamitran and had a run till the year 1934.

Dadabhai Naoroji, was a founder of the ‘Voice of India’ and the ‘Indian Spectator’ which he began in Mumbai (then Bombay) in 1885 which gave primary focus to the happenings in London as compared to local events which were mentioned briefly. Thus, Social reformers actually used media as a powerful tool in wringing in reforms and raising the ante against social evils.

Conclusion:

Thus, India has a very large and rich History of Journalism. While, most of the Britishers initially started the papers, the people of the Country, gradually took over with great gusto the pen- a tool mightier than the sword. The newspapers indeed became a channel of Information education and major contributor in the freedom struggle under the patronage of Stalwart leaders.

I would suggest the reading of Natarajan's book, History of Journalism in India, for a better and detailed study. Also the notes by Dr Padmanabhan for the Calicut University which are freely available on the Internet. Although , I have added details from varied sources as the need of students differs from University to University, reading added material always benefits.

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[1] https://www.britannica.com/topic/journalism, (Accessed- Jan 11-01-2019)

Role of Journalism in Society (Indian Context)

Role of Journalism in Society

                                                                     (Indian Context)

In India a democratic country, Media is considered as the ‘Fourth Pillar’ along with the Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary, the three other pillars. Media plays a crucial role in the democratic lives of the citizens of the country as it keeps people informed about the Socio-economic and Political state of Affairs. 

Media brings to limelight varied issues of concern that need to be dealt with and tries to place before us a coverage of events that are occurring around. Media also serves information today in a process that combines entertainment with a means of education. This is called Infotainment.

Role of Journalism:

Communication of News, Information, Updation and Education: 

The role of journalism is primarily to provide information and news. Journalism can be of varied types and a journalist can write or present various genre and styles. For instance, a journalist can cover daily, news, investigative news or write features on varied topics. A journalist today can also write and present varied stuff that may not qualify as hardcore news or journalism and this is a genre all by itself called Lifestyle journalism which is based upon news about Travel, Food, Luxury, Clothing, Automobiles, Fashion, Sex, etc,.  A journalist could write on environment or health. A journalist can also be a content writer.

Many Professionals from the world around be it Doctors, Lawyers, Environmentalists, Botanists, Zoologists, Engineers or IITians, have taken to journalism to make people aware and inform them on varied topics which cannot be presented by ordinary citizens. This rise of  Technical writers is indeed a boon as it creates a plethora of information on various topics, erstwhile unknown to many people. 

As a journalist who writes and/ or presents information to the people, it is important to remember that Journalism is a tool that epitomises information that is to be proclaimed on the wings of truth, authenticity, objectivity, loyalty and Honesty. The “Purpose of journalism is thus to provide citizens with the information they need to make the best possible decisions about their lives, their communities, their societies, and their government”. (www.americanpress institute.org, 2015).

Role as Mediator: 

It is the role of the journalist to inform, educate and stand as the voice of the people of the country. While, journalism of different genres is a requirement, News journalism has an important role to play. A journalist has to be the voice that acts as a mediator between the People and the Government. Agenda setting by journalists has led to important issues being discussed and decisions taken to support People's demands of justice. While, it has been doing that for many years, times have changed and the patterns have changed too. 

Role in Agenda Setting: 

While some issues have achieved success in grossing the media limelight, some urgent issues have deliberately been suppressed. Agenda setting on one hand has brought certain important news to the forum, but on the other hand, has given way to deliberately giving a spin to news and to often making the people think what media wants them to think. 

Journalism has fallen victim to economical pressures and in many cases death threats to loyal and brave journalists who have become victims to power ideologies, political battles, ideology gimmicks and economic fiasco. And this is not just the case in a country like ours, but world over. However, Online journalism has come as a respite as that which is sidelined by most TV channels tends to go viral over the net.

Role in Development and National Integration:

Historically, the story of Journalism especially in the ‘freedom struggle’ ages of India is a bold story of immense courage. While it began with Hicky’s Bengal Gazette being printed; It had a very challenging phase in the freedom struggle where, various freedom fighters implanted the spark of the freedom struggle in the hearts of Indian Citizens using printed literature. The Britishers wanted to ban this movement of Indian press which was blossoming in order to encourage the freedom fight. However, this was not to be. Gradually India gained freedom. The press found its voice speaking for the people of the country and for development causes. The journalists were not to cow down even during the Emergency. Therefore, Journalism has the important role of playing a catalyst in India's development measures, National Integration and fight for justice. India has a history of stalwart journalists just like many other countries. 

However, the arena drastically changed with the arrival of economisation and the need for TRPs to get ad revenue. Digitisation, Monetisation and Business has led to a media that often succumbs to the demands of economic demands. Hardcore business entities entered the Journalism arena and this was just the beginning of the downfall of objectivity in many cases of journalism. Advertisement moolah has become a prime necessity for most channels.

The meddling of Business manoeuvres and politicians have taken a toll on authentic journalism giving rise to a news reporting that has turned into a hob-nob for eye balls on Television debates and a politicising agenda for parties that wish to rule the rooster. As rightly said by Willams and Carpini, “it’s the power to set the “news agenda,” which determines which topics and issues are included in the news— and those which are omitted.” (Willams and Carpini, After Broadcast News p. 62-65).[1] 

There are journalists who have adapted to the economic scenario in order to safeguard their bread-winning jobs and the demands of their firms, while others have stood the ground and paid the price. A twist to tales with a high dosier of subjectivity in the news is today excepted as a clause acceptable to people. This is not justifiable and not to be considered as journalism. Bad news reporting or rather biased and unfair means of news reporting leads to an ill-formed public. It diverts the attention of the people from important concerns to trivial unimportant maters. In the long run, this trend could turn dangerous as people will lose regard for those who have woven lies under the mask of truth in the minds of people.  So, it is here that Journalism needs to undergo a rampant transformation.

Role as Gate-keeper:

Gate-keeping is another issue that leads to a massive amount of news from all over the country getting filtered. While the print media is still a better source of News and information, gate-keeping has led to a vast chunk of news especially from smaller towns never reaching a national platform. Most news channels barring a handful have become debate tables, with very little news from all over India about the needs of the people. These have turned into political pot-boilers debating on issues that evade other pressing issues that plague the country. The situation is also, not as bad as it could seem with authentic journalists heading towards social networking forums to present the voice of Truth.The newspapers both printed and Online, and the vernacular press are far better in their presentation of news. These also bring to you important international news which is sidelined by many channels. The major scams being exposed despite this unending trend of interference in media is an ode of triumph for the few motivated, honest and brave journalists. Though, these have to also pay the price as there are those who have succumbed to murders as a price of truth.

Conclusion: 

Years back, Roosevelt Theodore made a great speech wherein he summarises the role of a journalist. It can and should be remembered at any given point of time.  He said, “The power of the journalist is great, but he is entitled neither to respect nor admiration because of that power unless it is used aright. He can do, and often does, great good. He can do, and he often does, infinite mischief. All journalists, all writers, for the very reason that they appreciate the vast possibilities of their profession, should bear testimony against those who deeply discredit it. Offenses against taste and morals, which are bad enough in a private citizen, are infinitely worse if made into instruments for debauching the community through a newspaper. Mendacity, slander, sensationalism, inanity, vapid triviality, all are potent factors for the debauchery of the public mind and conscience. The excuse advanced for vicious writing, that the public demands it and that the demand must be supplied, can no more be admitted than if it were advanced by purveyors of food who sell poisonous adulterations. (Roosevelt Speech, 1910)[2]

Journalism schools need to train young minds to stand for the truth. Journalists need to understand, that it is better to have a smaller pay package and peace of mind then succumb to a bigger pay package and play with the minds of millions of Indians and fellow citizens who depend on you for information. Journalism is a noble profession. The vision of a growing empowered India demands a free voice of the journalist 'un'meddled by economic pressure, 'un'jostled by political demands and strengthened by its urge to stand as a voice of the people. 

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[1] The Role of Journalism in Society, Connections Med!aLit Moments, Consortium for Media Literacy, Volume No. 79, February 2016, https://www.medialit.org/sites/default/files/connections/The%20Role%20of%20Journalism%20in%20Society.pdf

[2] Roosevelt Theodore, The Man in the Arena, April 23, 1910, https://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/Learn-About-TR/TR-Encyclopedia/Culture-and-Society/Man-in-the-Arena.aspx