Types of Communication-3 Chapter 3

Group Communication and Public Communication

There are different types of Communication. These are often categorized differently by different scholars. We will discuss different types of Communication in this blog. Since this chapter is a long one, I have split it into different volumes to help students. This will be a series called Types of Communication-1,2,3,4,5

1. Verbal Communication and Non- Verbal Communication
2. Inter-personal Communication and Intra-personal Communication
3. Small Group Communication and Public Communication
4. Mass-Line Communication and Mass Communication
5. Formal Communication and Informal Communication

We have already discussed 'Verbal Communication and Non- Verbal Communication' in my post titled Types of Communication-1 and 'Inter-personal Communication and Intra-personal Communication' in Types of Communication -2. We now proceed to discuss 'Small Group Communication and Public Communication'.

Group Communication

When we speak of Group Communication, we are speaking about a group. When two or more persons interact with each, have a common goal and consider themselves as part of a Group, It is termed as Group Communication.

A group according to MacIver is a , “mean any collection of human beings who are brought into social relationship with one another”. Robert K. Merton says “A social group is a number of people who define themselves as members of a group; who expect certain behaviour from members that they do not expect from outsiders and whom others define as belonging to a group.”

While Bottomore defines it a bit more elaborately as he says, “A social group is an aggregate of individuals in which
                         (i) definite relations exist between the individuals comprising it, and
                        (ii) each individual is conscious of the group itself and its symbols”

Group members contribute to building of belonging and become a source of information and knowledge. Belonging to a group in some cases also gives a feeling of security and can boost Social identity. It is the interaction among the group that gives it nature rather than Physical proximity.

An individual may belong to one or more groups at the same time. For instance, a person may belong to a group of friends from one's college. However, the same individual may belong to another group that is a football lover's group in one's residential colony.

Luis Kumpiluvelil sdb says, 'Group Communication is one form of interpersonal communication. The persons in the group may belong to a homogenous or heterogenous group depending on their social context. Group Communication can take place at formal and informal levels.'

Most Sociologists refer to three types of Groups. These include

1. Primary Group
2. Secondary Group  
3. Reference Group

Primary Group: 

In the words of C.H. Cooley, “By primary I mean those characterised by intimate face-to-face association and co-operation. These are primary in several senses but chiefly in that they are fundamental in framing the social nature and ideals of the individual”. Primary groups are usually characterised by physical proximity, small size, similarity of background or culture and  common interests.

Secondary Group: 

A secondary group unlike a Primary group is not small in size. It need not have face to face interactions and the relations are casual and impersonal by nature. According to Ogburn, “The groups which provide experience lacking in intimacy are called secondary groups”.

Secondary groups are goal-oriented by nature, however, the roles assigned are clearly specified. The member may be scattered across the globe, but it is the goal that gets them together.

Reference Group:

According to Encyclopedia.com, "The term “reference group” was first used by Hyman, who elaborated the concept and explored some of its properties in 'The Psychology of Status' (1942)." He says, "Reference group is the group to which the individual refers in the sense that he identifies himself either consciously or unconsciously with it."

"In simple words a reference group is any person or group that serves as a point of comparison (for reference) for an individual in forming either general or specific values, attitudes, or behavior (Schiffman & Kanuk, 2000). Given that social networks are conformed in different manners in different cultural contexts, reference group influence varies across cultures (Childers & Rao, 1992).

Reference groups have basically two functions (Kelley, 1965): A normative function that sets and enforces standards for the individual, and a comparative function that serves as a comparison point against which an individual evaluates himself and others (Cocanougher & Bruce, 1971).

Public Communication

Any information that occurs between individuals and groups of people or Public can be termed as Public Communication. Often Mass media is used as a means to reach out to a large audience.
A speech given on a stage to an audience is one instance of Public communication. Politicians speaking in a public rally, or a huge company advertising on a public platform are examples of Public Communication.

Nicole Papa (2017) says, "Public communication is the sending and receiving of messages on a large scale that impacts groups of people. For the communication to be considered effective, the messages must be clearly and accurately sent and received with a high degree of comprehension."

P.S: The Books and Online materials have been mentioned for the convenience of the students. You may read them online, or read the books available on the mentioned authors from your library for further study or buy the same online. 

Types of Communication-2 Chapter 3

Inter-personal Communication and 

Intra-personal Communication

There are different types of Communication. These are often categorized differently by different scholars. We will discuss different types of Communication in this blog. Since this chapter is a long one, I have split it into different volumes to help students. This will be a series called Types of Communication-1,2,3,4,5

1. Verbal Communication and Non- Verbal Communication
2. Inter-personal Communication and Intra-personal Communication
3. Small Group Communication and Public Communication
4. Mass-Line Communication and Mass Communication
5. Formal Communication and Informal Communication

We have already discussed 'Verbal Communication and Non- Verbal Communication' in my post titled Types of Communication-1 Chapter 3. 

We now proceed to discuss 'Inter-personal Communication and Intra-personal Communication'.

Inter-personal Communication

Interpersonal Communication is a term that is basically attributed to a face to face communication between two persons. It is communication or a dialogue which is direct and personal and unmediated by media technology. In Inter-personal Communication the feedback is immediate. Context plays an important role in Interpersonal communication. The cultural, environmental and situational context all play a very important role in the process of Interpersonal Communication.

Keval J Kumar highlights three stages of Inter-personal communication in his book, 'Mass Communication in India.' he says,

1. The phatic stage: The phatic stage occurs when ritualised greetings are exchanged. They are only a formalised manner of showing interest and attention. The phatic stage then is patterned according to social and cultural norms and rituals.
2. The personal stage: The second stage, called the personal stage, introduces a more personal element into the conversation. During this period, persons lower their social guard a little and are prepared to take some risk in exposing themselves and their feelings. They may be willing to talk about personal matters such as one’s profession, the family, health problems and the like. Professional discussions rarely go beyond this stage. 
3. The intimate stage: This stage is reserved for friends and relatives as there is a degree of intimacy depending upon the closeness of the relationship. Interpersonal communication achieves its highest form in this mode, and words seem inadequate."

Intra-personal communication

In Intra-personal communication, the sender and the receiver is the same. When one tries to reflect, interpret a map, or do self- talk, it is called Intra-personal communication. Luis Kumpiluvelil sdb says, "Thus, transmission of information takes place through the nerve impulses in the brain rather than the sound in the air or written words on a page."

Intra-personal Communication includes interpreting maps, texts, signs and symbols, the stomach growling when hungry or upset, self talk, reading aloud, writing one’s thoughts or observations, day-dreaming or nocturnal dreaming, reflecting, contemplating and meditating.

Intra-personal communication can be understood as ‘communication within oneself’ or as ‘talking within the individual self or with the self’ (David). Activities such as thinking, calculating, planning, imagining, recollecting and also unconscious activities can be included as the process of intra-personal communication (David Gill and Bridget Adams, 1988:82).

'Intra-personal communication is the origin of all the other forms of communication. The mind is always in communication with internal messages, in processing them constantly before they are expressed outwardly in Public. The self-concept of a person is formed through Intra-personal communication.' (Introduction to communication and media studies, Edited by John Joshva Raja and Samson Prabhakar)

Keval J. Kumar, in his book, 'Mass Communication in India,' says that It ‘is individual reflection, contemplation and meditation. Transcendental meditation for instance is an example of such communication. Conversing with the divine, with spirits and ancestors, may be termed ‘trans-personal’ Communication. This is a vital experience in the religious and monastic life, and in ashrams and places of prayer.

We will discuss 'Small Group Communication and Public Communication' in my next post which is titled Types of Communication-3 , Chapter 3

P.S: The Books and Online materials have been mentioned for the convenience of the students. You may read them online, or read the books available on the mentioned authors from your library for further study or buy the same online. 

ELEMENTS OF THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

While the following is present in chapter 1, it is given in detail in this post for the convenience of students and friends.

Elements of the Process of Communication 

Communication works by exchanging information or messages. The process of communication involves a sender, a receiver and the message. This is the basic concept. However, to have a complete process of communication it need many elements. "The elements in the communication process determine the quality of communication. A problem in any one of these elements can reduce communication effectiveness" (Keyton, 2011).

Communication process thus involves the following basic elements: 

• Source/Sender
• Message
• Medium or Channel
• Receiver
• Feedback 
• Noise

SOURCE/ SENDER: The Sender is the individual who initiates the process of communication by sending a message or information. It is the sender who elicits a response from the recipient of the message or information. The process by which the translation of thoughts is done in order to send it as a message is called Encoding. The sender encodes the message in order to send it to a recipient. "Encoding is the performing and composing of communicative signs within the brain and then their external expression is speech." (Burton and Dimbleby, 1983:3)

MESSAGE: A sender sends the idea, concept or Information to another recipient. This is the message in the field of communication. It is the formulated content in the process of communication. Denis McQuail (1975) says that the simple way of regarding human communication is ‘to consider it as the sending from one person to another of meaningful messages’.

CHANNEL: When a sender sends message to a receiver, the Sender may choose a means for communicating or for transferring this message. The sender may use words, speech, gestures or tools. In the study of communication, these are called a medium or a channel. The primary medium is the human body; all other media are extensions of the body (McLuhan).

RECEIVER: Communication does not happen in Vacuum. The sender sends a message to a recipient of the message. There is a person who receives the message that was sent by the sender. This is the receiver. When the encoded message is re-translated into thoughts, by the receiver in order to understand what was sent by the sender, it is called Decoding. Decoding is basically the receiver decoding and understanding the information received. "Decoding is considered as the physical acceptance of external signals like hearing and understanding or the construction of meaning from those signals" (Burton and Dimbleby, 1983:3)
There may be times that a recipient may choose to refuse to accept the message. In this case, the message was sent, but the recipient responded negatively, however there was communication occuring. If however, there was no one to receive the message, then communication is incomplete.

FEEDBACK: A feedback in communication means the receiver’s response or reaction to the message sent by the sender.

The response of the receiver can further carry on the process of communication. A feedback also helps the sender to understand if the recipient has received the message as desired by the sender.

NOISE: A Noise or Barrier includes anything that impedes the message from being fully received and understood by the receiver. The concept or term ‘Noise’ was introduced in communication theory in 1940's by Shannon and Weaver while working on a mathematical model in Bell Laboratories. While, this term was coined initially as a disturbance in the receptivity of signals by Shannon and Weaver, researchers later realised that in the field of communication 'barrier or noise' could be external or internal.

There is sharing of information or message transmission between the sender and the receiver. The sender sends a message to a receiver. This message could be sent through any medium. The receiver receives the message and interprets it. These terms are technically defined below:

• The sender makes a message based on what  one wants to communicate. it could be a concept or an idea. This process is called 'Encoding'.
• After encoding, the sender transmits this message through the medium.
• The medium may vary based on how the sender wants to send the message to the receiver.
• The recipient receives the message and starts deciphering or understanding it. This process is called 'decoding'.
• The recipient further gives a reaction or a response. This is called a feedback. This feedback could be direct or through the use of a medium and channel.
• This is gradually followed by the decoding of the feedback received.  
• The concept of 'Noise' includes any element that causes disruption or disturbance in the process of communication. It could also be anything that distorts the message.
• If feedback does not occur for any given reason, it is called one-way communication.

Communication always occurs in a context. Some reseacrh scholars include Context while discussing the basic elements of Communication.

CONTEXT: There is always a context in which a sender sends the message and the receiver receives it. The are both influenced by the context they are in while Communication occurs. The information sent by the sender depends upon the age, background, economic status, and cultural factors that define the lifestyle of the sender. On the other hand, the recipient receiver the message based on the cultural background and lifestyle that the receiver has grown in. 

Context is an important factor in the field of Communication. It is essential to know the background of the receiver for communication to occur smoothly. For instance, a joke in Western Countries may be considered as highly offensive in Asian or Arab countries. The reason being the cultural context of each country being entirely different. 

The above mentioned are the basic elements a students can normally refer to as the elements of Communication. But Scholars always go a step further. 

Today, the field of communication includes different elements of Mass Communication. In such a case, Communication Scholar, Uma Narula presents seven elements in the process of Communication. In her book, 'Dynamics of Mass Communication: Theory and practice', She summarises the process of communication in the following way- 'The essential elements are: there is interaction so there is sender/s and receiver/s within a context. There is a message to be conveyed through a  channel. The object of the interaction is to have intended or unintended effects on receivers (targeted audience), to assess the effectiveness, there should be loops of feedback to the sender and receiver. The need for communication channels, messages and audience for the focused issues varies and develops over time.

Thus, communicator, objective, audience, message, channel and effects, feedback loops, are the essential seven elements of Communication process.' (Narula, 2006)

P.S: The Books and Online materials have been mentioned for the convenience of the students. You may read them online, or read the books available on the mentioned authors from your library for further study or buy the same online. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICATION

This is already included in Chapter 1, However, I am posting it separately for the convenience of students and friends searching primarily for this topic. 

Characteristics of Communication

Communication is not static. It has various characteristics. Some of these are enumerated below:

• Two way process: Communication has a sender and a receiver. Communication cannot occur in a vacuum.

• Dynamic in Nature: Communication is never static. It is dynamic. There is an exchange of information between sender and receiver. The process further elaborates when there is a feedback. The receiver after decoding the message gives a feedback, in this process, the receiver now becomes a sender and vice versa.

• Purpose- Communication has a purpose. The purpose could vary from sender to sender. But there is always a purpose.

• Contextual- Communication always happens in a context. The sender and the receiver communicate in a context. Each of them will be influenced by the context that surrounds them.

• Form: Communication can take a form. It could be sharing or a request or order or an expression of anger. Communication could be formal or informal based on the context the communication is occurring.

• Use of signs and symbols: Communication need not only be verbal. Communication can occur through words, actions, signs , symbols, graphs, expressions, etc.

• Scope: Communication not being static, has a scope. It can help a person to deal with a situation.

FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION

This is already included in Chapter 1, However, I am posting it separately for the convenience of students and friends searching primarily for this topic. 

Functions of Communication

The functions of communication are numerous. A few of these functions are mentioned below:

• Information: One of the primary functions of communication is to inform another person. In any given field whether family, friendships or business, sharing of information is integral for communication to occur.
• Social needs: Communication helps one to fulfill one's social need. The needs to be identified, belong, control and be affectionate and receive affection are innate and communication helps in the same.
• Practical needs: Communication helps one to fulfill the practical needs. For instance, simple things like buying a product, asking someone to pass an object, etc.
• Education: Communication helps in the process of education. It is an important element in the transfer of knowledge, ideas and concepts. To spread literacy and create awareness is an important function of communication.
• Co-ordination: Communication helps to co-ordinate 
• Persuasion: Persuasion could include various dimensions of persuasion. For instance, a mother persuades her child to drink milk for good health but persuasion could also mean different organisations persuading you to buy their product.
• Motivation or Raising Morale: An individual could motivate others through actions, words or deeds. One could always encourage and boost the morale of those around through kind words of encouragement, motivation and inspiration.  A good teacher is a good communicator who motivates and raises the morale of her students by encouraging them to achieve their dreams and work hard for it.
• Instruction: Communication also helps in instructions. It is important while driving to follow the instructions of safe driving. 
• Advice: Communication could also mean advice. 
• Warning: Communication could include warning. For instance: The weather forecast department issues warning regarding the weather conditions to the people.
• Connectivity: In today's arena, communication has jumped leaps and bound and has led to a connectivity unimaginable before. Social networking forums have led to people connecting globally.
• Networking: The world today with its digital activity has become a constant forum for networking. It is not surprising them that Social Networking forums have become major forums for communication and networking.

Types of Communication-1 Chapter 3

VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

There are different types of Communication. These are often categorised differently by different scholars. We will discuss different types of Communication in this blog. Since this chapter is a long one, I have split it into different volumes to help students. This will be a series called Types of Communication-1,2,3,4,5

1. Verbal Communication and Non- Verbal Communication
2. Inter-personal Communication and Intra-personal Communication
3. Small Group Communication and Public Communication
4. Mass-Line Communication and Mass Communication
5. Formal Communication and Informal Communication

VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Verbal Communication is communication based on Language and is verbal. However, we need to remember that verbal communication that uses words could be both

1. Vocal Verbal Communication and 
2. Non-Vocal Verbal Communication.

Vocal Verbal Communication 

Vocal Language includes communication which includes spoken Language. It includes Oral Communication. Vocal communication or oral communication refers to messages that are communicated or transmitted using sound waves from one individual to another. Speaking is verbal communication.  'The defining distinction of oral communication is that it involves the production and transmission systems of the human voice and is aimed towards the auditory reception system of one or more other persons.’(Introduction to communication and media studies, edited by John Joshva Raja and Samson Prabhakar) 

Non-Vocal Verbal Communication

Non-vocal verbal communication includes written communication. Written communication that uses language and is verbal is considered to be Non-Vocal Verbal Communication. It can also include Braille, or other similar alternatives to verbal language.


                               ********************************************

NON- VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Albert Mehrabian, Professor  Emeritus of Psychology, UCLA,  known for his publications on the relative importance of verbal and nonverbal messages says, “There are basically three elements in any face-to-face communication:

• Words
• Tone of voice 
• Non-verbal behavior

Non- verbal communication includes communication without words. Communication need not be only with words. When persons are involved in verbal communication, we often observe other unspoken elements that happen simultaneously which include body movements or body language. A person may speak with a bright smile or with a frown. The smile or the frown add to the meaning of the message. Non-verbal language of communication is equally important as verbal communication.

Dance, architecture, artefacts, rituals, signs like the nodding of the head, etc are all part of Non-Verbal Communication.

Functions of Non verbal communication:

There are different functions of Non verbal communication. In his book, Bodily Communication originally published in 1975, John Michael Argyle, mentions what he calls the five primary functions of Nonverbal Behavior (Argyle, 1988). 

1. Expression of Emotion - emotions are expressed mainly through the face, body, and voice.
2. Communication of Interpersonal Attitudes - the establishment and maintenance of relationships if often done through nonverbal signals (tone of voice, gaze, touch, etc.).
3. Accompany and Support Speech- vocalization and nonverbal behaviors are synchronized with speech in conversation (nodding one’s head or using phrases like “uh-huh” when another is talking).
4. Self-Presentation - presenting oneself to another through nonverbal attributes like appearance.
5. Rituals - the use of greetings, handshakes or other rituals.

There are different dimensions of non-verbal communication. 

Dance as Non-verbal Communication

Dance is expressive. It communicates. Dance is often used to tell a story or narrate an event. It can also be simply entertainment or creativity. Dance is an integral element of many cultures. Different cultures have traditional dances that depict their cultural heritage and richness.

• Bhava: In India, Many of the classical dances have the element of 'Bhava' which expresses different feelings or emotions like anger, sorrow, anxiety, etc through facial expressions. In other western countries, it could be the expressions on the face of the dancers in a Ballet or  any other Dance performance. Albeit, the fact that the term Bhava is used in the context of Indian Classical Dance forms. 

• Mudra: One of the very important features of Indian classical dance is the Mudra.  Mudra are the hand or leg, gestures and movements made by the artists. These are made to narrate a story. Mudras are like sign language. They have a meaning. So, the Mudra for peacock is quite different from a Mudra that indicates a deer. So while Bhavas show expressions, Mudras show the action. Classical dance in India is beautifully manifested through Bhavas and Mudras, which are non-verbal by nature.

Arti-factual Communication 

Dress, Ornaments and personal artifacts reveal a lot about one's personality, taste and choices. Arti-factual communication basically means messages that are conveyed by hand-made objects. Thus, one's dressing, aesthetics, colour, jewellery, hairstyle, Clothes, etc are considered arti-factual. Often, our cultures and our society dictate the way we wear clothes, use ornaments or carry ourselves. For instance, in India, especially in Rural India, the symbol of a Married Hindu Woman is indicated by the red vermillion powder that she uses on her forehead on the hair partition. In some other states, the symbol of Marriage is either Red Bangles or Green Bangles or the Mangal Sutra. A funeral Dress code is often white in most corners of India, while for Christians in States like Goa, it is Black. These are all elements of Non-verbal Communication.

Body movements and Gestures and Kinesics 

A loving gaze from a mother for her child can be very consoling. A pat on the back for a great performance can be very encouraging for a student. An angry look can frighten a student who has done mischief. All these are examples of Body Movements and Gestures. In India, People join hands in a respectful manner while saying Namaste. In some other Asian Countries, people bow to welcome you. In Western countries, People give a warm handshake to welcome you. These are all elements of Non verbal communication.
Gestures are movements of the head, hand, leg or body that express an idea or emotion. The word 'Kinesics' means the study of body movements, facial expressions, childlike behaviours and gestures that was developed by Ray L. Birdwhistell in the 1950’s.
Facial expressions communicate feelings and emotions. Often expressions communicate the attitude of a person and give an idea regarding the personality of an individual. A laughter, smile, frown, narrowed eyes, etc could exhibit friendliness, anger or disbelief .

Eye-contact and Oculesics 

A look can often express emotions. An angry look leads to the narrowing of the eyes or the dilation of the eye lid. Children often have their eyes wide open when they are fascinated or surprised. The study of eye contact and pupil dilation in terms of Non-verbal communication is called Oculesics.

Personal Characteristics 

The way a person carries oneself does matter. Often, small elements like Body odour, choice of clothes, etc become non-verbal elements of communication.

Touch, Tactile Communication, Haptics 

A touch can indicate anything. A touch can be consoling, comforting, loving, romantic or even aggravating, especially when it is unwanted. A handshake, a kiss, a pat, holding hands, high fives, are all non-verbal communication. The study of communication using touch was termed as Tactile communication. Today, the study of touch is popularly called Haptics.
Touch in different cultures would mean differently. For instance, in India, in an urban set up like a city, you are permitted to hold hands as friends with either a boy or a girl. But this is totally unacceptable in the remote villages in India. Any element of non-verbal communication is enriched by the culture one lives in. The cultural context, signs and symbols, manner of touch, etc differs not just from country to country but from State to State.

Para-verbal communication, Para-language or Vocalics 

Para-verbals or para-language is an element of non-verbal communication and conveys emotions and attitudes, consciously or unconsciously. For instance a person who yells while saying that he is not getting irritated has already proved through the tone of his voice that s/he is actually aggravated or irritated. We often hear people saying, "that tone is so sarcastic!" A whistle, a tone, a raise in one's pitch while talking, a deliberately produced cough or sigh, are all indicators of Non-verbal communications that communicate much more than words alone.

Vocalics is the study of para-language, which includes the vocal qualities that go along with verbal messages, such as pitch, volume, rate, vocal quality, and verbal fillers (Andersen, 1999).

Luis Kumpiluvelil sdb and C. S. Rayudu have written on this topic in their books, 'Basics of Communication' and 'Communication'. They further divide Paralanguage into four parts:

• Voice Qualities: It includes factors such as pitch, resonance, volume, rate and rhythm.
• Vocal characteristics: Embracing laughter, coughing, throat-clearing and sighing.
• Vocal qualifiers: Referring to variations in pitch and volume
• Voice segregates: Including the silent sounds such as ‘ahs’, 'hmm',  and ‘ers’ and pauses. These clues influence meaning.

Silence 

Silence can actually communicate a lot. A silence could indicate anger, frustration, ignorance or attitude. It could mean a refusal. Silence is also an element of Non-verbal communication.

Space and distance or Proxemics  

Space or distance around us is an important factor that can speak volumes about individuals. O Minu Agnus says that Proxemics can be defined as the study of means in which individuals make use of the physical space in the interaction between the individuals. This process of owning the space by above said means differ from culture to culture. ( IRWLE VOL. 8 No. I)

If two people are standing close to each other and are communicating freely, it indicates they know each other well to be so close. But at a bus stop, even if you are standing in a queue, and you receive a push from a stranger, it could lead to a fight, if the stranger's push seemed deliberate and transgressing your space. A public speaker speaks from a podium which is at a distance with a crowd that knows him from far. The same public speaker after returning home, takes his baby on his lap and speaks to her. Space matters!

E T Hall, the most popular founder of Intercultural Communication, sets forth a theory about how people react to others at various distances from their own bodies, indicating thereby a sense of territoriality, similar to that shown by animals or birds and develops notation for this purpose.” (Blyth 1976; p 117)

Edward T. Hall described four levels of social distance that occur in different situations

• Intimate distance - 6 to 18 inches (15 to 45 cm): This indicates the physical distance for the ones we are close to or we have an intimate relationship with, such as with close family or a partner. 
• Personal or friend distance - 1.5 to 4 feet (45 cm to 1.2 metres): Physical distance at this level usually occurs between people who are family members or close friends as you are comfortable standing in their presence.
• Social distance - 4 to 12 feet (1.2 metres to 3.6 metres): This distance is generally used with individuals who are acquaintances. For instance, it could be your baby sitter, or a co-worker in your company whom you feel free to talk to. 
• Public or audience distance - 12 to 25 feet (3.6 metres to 7.5 metres): This is the distance adopted by speakers, preachers, teachers in a classroom, etc. 

Chronemics 

Punctuality is often considered as a sign of discipline. Arriving on time and time consciousness are often used as standards to judge a person in today's world. This example indicates that 'Time and Punctuality' reveal something about a person's life style. Thus time is an element of Non-verbal Communication. The study of this role of Time in the field of Communication, is called Chronemics. 

We have just finished two types of Communication. In my next post, we will go for types of communication- 2 where I discuss 'Inter-personal Communication and Intra-personal Communication'. The only reason for doing this, is the length of the post. Thanks all!

P.S: The Books and Online materials have been mentioned for the convenience of the students. You may read them online, or read the books available on the mentioned authors from your library for further study or buy the same online. 

Barriers or Noise in Communication- Chapter 2

Barriers or Noise in Communication

As discussed by me in Chapter 1, Communication can be hampered by Noise. The term 'Noise' in the study of communication is basically attributed to a barrier that disrupts the process of communication.

The concept or term ‘Noise’ was introduced in communication theory in 1940's by Shannon and Weaver while working on a mathematical model in Bell Laboratories. A Noise or Barrier included anything that impeded the message from being fully received and understood by the receiver. While, this term was coined initially as a disturbance in the receptivity of signals by Shannon and Weaver, researchers later realised that in the field of communication 'barrier or noise' could be external or internal.

"What do we mean by external or internal barriers?", must be the question that has cropped up in your mind. This chapter will give an answer to this question. 

In day to day communication, it is common occurrence to have misunderstandings and misinterpretations. An individual (a sender) may try to communicate something to the best of one's capacity, however, it is not necessary that the Recipient (a receiver) has received the message and understood it in exactly the same way as desired by the sender. There may be something that leads to the receiver not understanding the message in the same way as sent by the sender. This is Noise.

For example: If two persons A and B are talking over a cellphone. While A is standing in the office and talking, B is standing on the roadside amidst heavy traffic, trying to focus amidst the surrounding noise of the vehicle what A is trying to say. The sound of the traffic drowns the voice of A over the cellphone. In such a case, B may not be able to understand what A is trying to say, so B may ask A to repeat the message again, or ask A to call back later or B will be compelled to walk to a quieter place to be able to listen and understand or decipher what A is spoken. The sound of the traffic in such a case becomes a Barrier or Noise. 

However, Noise or Barrier need not only be surrounding individuals. There are elements of noise that can exist within each individual. Therefore, in any communication, a barrier or noise is that element which interferes with the decoding of messages by a receiver sent over a channel by an encoder or sender.
Noise / Barrier in communication leads to communication failure or undesirable response to communication due to the problem in the decoding of the message. The barriers could be physical, environmental, semantic, attitudinal or psychological. 

There are different types of Noise . Many research Scholars categorise Noise into three types:

1. External Noise: It has two categories a) Physical Noise b) Mechanical Noise
2. Internal Noise: It has three categories a) Physiological Noise b) Psychological Noise c) Psycho-social Noise
3. Semantic Noise

1. External Noise

Luis Kumpiluvelil sdb, in his book 'Basics of Social communication' defines external noise by saying, “When communication is disturbed due to factors that are external to the people involved in the interaction, we say that there is external noise.

External noise is further classified into
                     A) Physical noise
                     B) Mechanical noise

 A) Physical noise: 

An external physical noise could be anything that is external or in the surrounding  that prevents or disrupts the reception of the message encoded by the sender. In the words of Rothwell, "Physical noise is an external or environmental stimulus that distracts us from receiving the intended message sent by a communicator" (Rothwell, 2004). Luis Kumpiluvelil and Keval Kumar specify four aspects of physical noise. We refer to these terms while elaborating on Physical noise.

A.1- Competing Stimulus: Any noise in the surrounding that disrupts communication could be identified as Competing stimulus. For instance, traffic, honking of vehicle, loud music, too many birds, a train passing with a loud horn, could lower the receptivity of communication and drown out the message. This is an External, Physical Noise

A.2- Environmental stress: A Message can also be drowned due to stress in the environment around. For instance, soaring high temperatures, sun glare, a dust storm, lack of ventilation, heavy rainfall, vibrations, etc could disrupt communication. This is an External, Physical Noise

A.3- Subjective Stress: Sleep deficiency, Effect of medication or drugs, can give rise to forms of subjective stress that creates a disturbance in receiving the message.

A.4- Ignorance of the medium: Communication is done through various mediums. These  could be oral, written, signs and symbols, audio- visual or in today's arena even digital. However, if the recipient of the message is not well versed with the same medium in which the sender has encoded the message, the communication is hampered. This is an External, Physical Noise

For example, an illiterate villager rides a bullock cart from his village to a city for the first time. While travelling in the city, he reaches a lane which shows the signboard showing a dead end 2 kms ahead.  For someone who has never learnt the meaning of such a sign board, he will continue proceeding ahead and reach the dead end. The communication in this case is a failure due to the ignorance of the medium.This is an External, Physical Noise

B) Mechanical noise: 

It refers to any disturbance that is cause due to a malfunction in the gadget , technology or equipment used. For instance, the network has poor receptivity, or a constant buzzing sound on the mobile phone due to a technical problem inside the gadget could lead to mechanical noise and disturbance in communication. This is an External, Mechanical Noise. A bad handwriting in a students paper will make things difficult for a teacher while correcting the same, as she will not be able to read and understand what the student has written. This is an external, mechanical noise.

2. Internal Noise

Internal noise is a noise whose source is within the individual persons involved in the communication process which hampers the process and leads to disruption in the understanding of the message. Internal noise may be classified into two:
                    A) Physiological Noise
                    B) Psychological Noise
                    C) Psycho-social Noise

                 

A) Physiological Noise

This includes bodily ailments like high fever and bodily factors that disturb the reception of messages. Bodily Disabilities could also lead to lack of understanding of the message. Someone with poor eyesight will struggle to read a message given on a paper with a very tiny font. This is an Internal, Physiological noise.
                 

B) Psychological Noise (Mental Noise)

Psychological noise is also termed as Mental noise at times due to the fact that this noise is caused due to psychological problems that could stem from stress, fear, tension and emotional distress. Pre-conceived notions, stereotyping problems and prior assumptions could lead to a noise from within the individual that prevents the reception or transfer of a message. It could also deal with attitudinal problems that a person has within. Hence, this is an Internal, Psychological noise.

Keval J Kumar in his book, 'Mass Communication in India' beautiful mention four different elements that lead to Psychological Noise.

B.1- Frame of reference: Keval J Kumar says, "It is a ‘kind of window through which we look out at the world, at people and events and situations. A frame of reference is a system of standards and values, usually implicit, underlying and to some extent controlling an action, or the expression of any belief, attitude or idea." This window is often created based on our experience in the situation that one has grown up in.

B.2- Self- Image: Many Psychologists emphasis the importance of self image and self worth. A persons self image does play an important role in communication. A person with a low self image may understand and communicate differently as compare to a person with high self esteem. We often encounter people in our lives, who may find it difficult to communicate due to the circumstances that have diminished their self-image. For e.g. Children with a low self image finding it daunting to stand before a crowd on the stage as compared to children who have grown up with a positive self image and are confident.

B.3- Resistance to change: Change is difficult and it is frightening. We are comfortable in our zones in the normal routine way of life. Change requires extra effort. It also creates fear. This concept of change leads to a resistance which can obstruct communication.

B.4- Defensiveness and Fear: As human beings, we often justify our mistakes. It is easier for us to point a blaming finger towards others that accept a blame and take responsibility for a particular action. Fear of losing one's name can create communication gaps or noise. Fear of different things can be a huge block in the process of communication.

C) Psycho-social Noise

This is quite similar to Psychological noise, however, Psycho-social barrier stems from social conditioning and situations and are social in nature. While Psychological noise deals with emotional and mental factors, Psycho-social barriers stem from social factors such as one's interpretation of people's backgrounds, values and other social elements. This could also include Cultural barriers.

 

3. Semantic Noise

Fred C. Lunenburg, Sam Houston State University, states, "the words we choose, how we use them, and the meaning we attach to them, cause many communication barriers. The same word may mean different things to different people." Language barriers can often create problems and create a noise or a barrier in communication. Language problems can lead to difficulty in deciphering the message. 

Julia T. Wood, in 'Interpersonal Communication: Everyday Encounters' says, "Authors sometimes create semantic noise by using jargon or unnecessarily technical language." For instance, An ordinary person from a secretarial background who is asked to draft the summary of a book on engineering with a language that is extremely technical in nature will not be able to make sense out of it. 

Luis Kumpiluvelil states that Semantic noise is related to many factors, such as, people’s knowledge level, their linguistic skills, their communication skills, their experience, their prejudices, their cultural background, their world views, and so on. Semantic noise has to do with the meaning behind the words, gestures, signs or symbols.

P.S: The Books and Online materials have been mentioned for the convenience of the students. You may read them online, or read the books available on the mentioned authors from your library for further study or buy the same online. 

Communication- Characteristics, Functions and Elements- Chapter 1

Introduction

Being a teacher the  purpose of this blog is to help my students in the field of communications. It is with this aspect of the study of Communication in mind that I pen these posts.

To live isolated is a dreadful feeling. Communication helps us to interact, share, understand, relate, promote, inform and express. It is a dynamic process. In scientific terms, Communication is basically considered to be a sharing of information between a sender and a receiver. 

So, do only human beings communicate? Well, obviously, the answer is 'No'. Communication occurs all around us even in animals and in nature at large. However, for my blog, I restrict myself to communication among human beings. As this is a subject of my interest. 

Edwin Emery Philip in his book, 'Introduction to Mass communication' says that 'the study of communication involves two aspects-

1. A broad comprehension of the mechanical means and the underlying theories of communication and
2. More importantly, an understanding of how we use these tools in our daily round of informing influencing, inspiring, convincing, frightening and entertaining one another.'

Basic definition of Communication

While defining communication, it is necessary that we go to the etymological roots of the word 'communication'. Etymologically, the origin of the word communication is derived from the Latin noun 'communis' which means commonality and the Latin verb 'communicare', which means 'to share' or 'to make common.' 

Different scholars define communication in different ways. Here are a few definitions by renowned scholars.

Communication is transfer of information from one person to another, whether or not it elicits confidence. But the information transferred must be understandable to the receiver – G.G.
Brown.

Communication can be defined as the process of transmitting information and common understanding from one person to another- Keyton. 

Communication is a process of transmitting and receiving verbal and non-verbal messages. It is considered effective when it achieves the desired response or reaction from the receiver- Murphy, Hildebrandt and Thomas.

Communication is a bridge of meaning. It involves a systematic and continuous process of telling, listening and understanding- Louis Allen

Communication is the transmission of information, idea, emotions, skills, etc, by the use of symbols, words, pictures, figures, graphs, etc. it is the act or process of transmission that is usually called communication- Berelson and Steiner

Communication is a process by which information is transmitted between individuals and/ or organizations so that an understanding response results- Peter Little

Dr Gordon Coates simplifies the definition of communication and summarises it in three points in his book 'Notes on Communication'. He says, 

• Communication is the sharing of information.
• Communication is the giving and receiving of messages.
• Communication is the transfer of information from one or more people to one or more other people (http://www.wanterfall.com/Downloads/Communication.pdf\

Characteristics of Communication

Communication is not static. It has various characteristics. Some of these are enumerated below:

• Two way process: Communication has a sender and a receiver. Communication cannot occur in a vacuum.
• Dynamic in Nature: Communication is never static. It is dynamic. There is an exchange of information between sender and receiver. The process further elaborates when there is a feedback. The receiver after decoding the message gives a feedback, in this process, the receiver now becomes a sender and vice versa.
• Purpose- Communication has a purpose. The purpose could vary from sender to sender. But there is always a purpose.
• Contextual- Communication always happens in a context. The sender and the receiver communicate in a context. Each of them will be influenced by the context that surrounds them.
• Form: Communication can take a form. It could be sharing or a request or order or an expression of anger. Communication could be formal or informal based on the context the communication is occurring.
• Use of signs and symbols: Communication need not only be verbal. Communication can occur through words, actions, signs, symbols, graphs, expressions, etc.
• Scope: Communication not being static, has a scope. It can help a person to deal with a situation.

Functions of Communication

The functions of communication are numerous. A few of these functions are mentioned below:

• Information: One of the primary functions of communication is to inform another person. In any given field whether family, friendships or business, sharing of information is integral for communication to occur.
• Social needs: Communication helps one to fulfill one's social need. The needs to be identified, belong, control and be affectionate and receive affection are innate and communication helps in the same.
• Practical needs: Communication helps one to fulfill the practical needs. For instance, simple things like buying a product, asking someone to pass an object, etc.
• Education: Communication helps in the process of education. It is an important element in the transfer of knowledge, ideas and concepts. To spread literacy and create awareness is an important function of communication.
• Co-ordination: Communication helps to co-ordinate 
• Persuasion: Persuasion could include various dimensions of persuasion. For instance, a mother persuades her child to drink milk for good health but persuasion could also mean different organisations persuading you to buy their product.
• Motivation or Raising Morale: An individual could motivate others through actions, words or deeds. One could always encourage and boost the morale of those around through kind words of encouragement, motivation and inspiration.  A good teacher is a good communicator who motivates and raises the morale of her students by encouraging them to achieve their dreams and work hard for it.
• Instruction: Communication also helps in instructions. It is important while driving to follow the instructions of safe driving. 
• Advice: Communication could also mean advice. 
• Warning: Communication could include warning. For instance: The weather forecast department issues warning regarding the weather conditions to the people.
• Connectivity: In today's arena, communication has jumped leaps and bound and has led to a connectivity unimaginable before. Social networking forums have led to people connecting globally.
• Networking: The world today with its digital activity has become a constant forum for networking. It is not surprising them that Social Networking forums have become major forums for communication and networking.

Elements of the Process of Communication 

Communication works by exchanging information or messages. The process of communication involves a sender, a receiver and the message. This is the basic concept. However, to have a complete process of communication, it need many elements. "The elements in the communication process determine the quality of communication. A problem in any one of these elements can reduce communication effectiveness" (Keyton, 2011). Communication process thus involves the following basic elements: 

• Sender
• Message
• Medium
• Channel
• Receiver
• Feedback 
• Noise

There is sharing of information or message transmission between the sender and the receiver. The sender sends a message to a receiver. This message could be sent through any medium. The receiver receives the message and interprets it. These terms are technically defined below:

• The sender makes a message based on what  one wants to communicate. it could be a concept or an idea. This process is called 'Encoding'.
• After encoding, the sender transmits this message through the medium.
• The medium may vary based on how the sender wants to send the message to the receiver.
• The recipient receives the message and starts deciphering or understanding it. This process is called 'decoding'.
• The recipient further gives a reaction or a response. This is called a feedback. This feedback could be direct or through the use of a medium and channel.
• This is gradually followed by the decoding of the feedback received.  
• The concept of 'Noise' includes any element that causes disruption or disturbance in the process of communication. It could also be anything that distorts the message.
• If feedback does not occur for any given reason, it is called one-way communication.  

The cycle continues depending on the sender and the receiver and their need to communicate.

These notes are basically a help for interested students. I encourage students to read books by good authors for a detailed study.
Thanks,
God loves you,
Sr Patricia Michelle Mathias
Paulines, India

P.S: The Books and Online materials have been mentioned for the convenience of the students. You may read them online, or read the books available on the mentioned authors from your library for further study or buy the same online.