History of Journalism in India

History of Journalism in India

The following article is primarily written for my Undergrad students of BJMC- Introduction to Journalism, Unit 1.4.

Beginnings of journalism in a gist

The beginnings of journalism or rather reporting of news is traced to Ancient Rome around 59 BCE where notices and public speeches carved on stone or metal were displayed in public places as means of information to the people. These were called the Acta Diurna translated from latin as ‘daily acts’. It is said that in the Tang dynasty of China, a ‘Bao’ or in simple words a kind of a ‘court circular’ was sent to officials. These circulars seemed to have been appearing in varied forms in different dynasties right upto 1911.

The Encyclopaedia Britannica also states that “the first regularly published newspapers appeared in German cities and in Antwerp". Among the first, is the German newspaper called 'Relation aller Furnemmen und gedenckwurdigen Historien' in and around 1605. The first English newspaper, the Weekly News, was published in 1622. One of the first daily newspapers, The Daily Courant, appeared in 1702.”[1] It is also said that initially when newspapers began, there were many hinderances both due to censorship and restrictions from Authorities. Many newspapers did begin and shut down. However, the growing demand for newspapers due to the gradual spread of literacy and the invention of the press promulgated the printing of newspapers in bulk. These were the beginnings of what in future turned out to be the foundations of journalism.

Meanwhile, by the 17^th century, journals with opinionated pieces on current affairs saw a circulation. This was the birth of the concept of Magazines. Among such journals are the names of Tatler (1709–11) and the Spectator (1711–12). While, magazines began as a costly affair, the concept of advertisement revenue drastically transformed the entire scenario, slashing the price of the Magazines. Meanwhile, a lot of cheap, mass circulation magazines began appearing in the 1830s’. Gradually, other magazines, illustrated magazines, women’s magazines were produced. Thus, began the era of writers, printers, publishers and journalists. As publishing and sales grew and the demand for news and features grew, news agencies arose that provided news for a cost to varied publishing firms. The telegraph, the telephone, gradually the newer forms of technology led to the growth in communication of news at the earliest. The internet has led to instant news and news circulation.

History of Journalism in India

Ancient Traces of Journalism

In India, the historical traces of written documentation and records go right up to the Indus Valley civilizations. It is said the land grants were done by using carvings on copper plates and etching on various surfaces of wood, bone, ivory, etc,. Rock Edicts and Pillar edicts were also means of information during the times of Emperor Ashoka. It is also historically stated that Asoka employed overseers, secret emissaries and spies to gather information for him. It was tradition that a king gathered in his court or darbar to gather news from his prime minister, his councillors, and his officials. Wandering ministrels, merchants and spies were harbingers of news. While some would only reveal news to the king, the others would reveal it before the king and his trusted ministers.

The kings also had writ writers among his ministers, who would write down the king’s orders. “The kings writs were in reply to communications from ministers and viceroys, and in them, guidance was given on action to be taken by way of granting remissions or licenses or issuing a general proclamation. (Natarajan, 1955)

Therefore, the traces of journalism could be traced back to the ancient civilisations and times. Communication plays a very important role in governance and it has existed for centuries. Even in the sultanate period, this way of functioning always continued. The kings always wanted to protect their kingdoms or broaden their kingdoms. In either cases, spies played an important role.

During the Sultanate period, the Barid-i-Mamalik or commissioner of intelligence used to serve the authorities with the information of the empire. The munhis or spies of Sultan Alauddin Khalji communicated even the most trivial things to the Sultan. The Mughal government had a network of news-services-the waqai-navis, sawanih-navis, and khufia-navis. In addition to them there were harkarah and akhbar-navis for serving the royalties with general information. The bhats, kathaks and narasundars provided the people with social and cultural information. (Padmanabhan, 2011)

News, edicts and verdicts were proclaimed in the public through announcements before people who gathered together at the beat of the drum. Inscriptions and records were maintained on rocks and coins, monuments ad temples. All these were the forerunners of the full- fledged journalism that we have today.

The Arrival of the Press in India

The concept of printing came to India only much after the first press by Guttenberg printed the Bible. In the year, 1556, at the behest of the Christian Missionaries, the first press was installed by the Jesuits in Saint Paul’s College, Old Goa which resulted in the publication of Conclusiones Philosophicas.  

 
It is said that the press was initially meant to be delivered to the Emperor of Abyssinia. But he was not keen on receiving the Christian missionaries who accompanied the press. And this turned out to be for the benefit of India. 

 
Thus, began the initial stages of bulk printing which gradually grew. By the 17^th century, large scale printing had already commenced in India in different languages but mostly catering to books on Faith.

Beginning of Journalism in India

It is also said that as compared to many other Western countries, the means of communication were less developed in India. The Britishers who colonised India, began focussing on building transportation means primarily for business and monetary concerns. They wanted the raw resources of India.  This gradually led to the formation of roadways, waterways and railways. It was Dalhousie who initiated the work the electric Telegraph for faster communication in India. The East India Company massively used all means to broaden their trades. Thus, journalism too was aided by all these means.

Historically, journalism was actually initiated by the Britishers. It is said that the newspaper was brought by the Britishers and forced upon us. The existing nationalist idea didn’t entail the learning of a foreign language ‘English’ which had a derogatory term of reference in the Indian context known as Mlechhas’ language or the language of immoral degraded people. However, the East India Company were not for it. They were suspicious of all journalists and newspapers as they feared criticism. Secondly, the newspaper exposed the private lives of many Britishers which angered them and led them to suppress the same. The slow rise in the conscientisation of Indians to fight for freedom saw to many freedom fighters using the press to write about it both in English and in vernacular language.

In 1776, William Bolts attempted to start the first newspaper, but could not sustain himself, and had to abort the attempt as he came under scrutiny of the East India company.

On January 29, 1780, another individual, James Augustus Hicky started another newspaper called the Bengal Gazette or the Calcutta General Advertiser, which is today considered as the first English Newspaper in India. Self-proclaimed as a “weekly political and commercial paper open to all parties but influenced by none”, the paper included news snippets from England, letters from local and rural readers, scandalous gossips, a poet’s column, and a space for Hicky to communicate with his readers. The scandalous gossips about private lives of Britishers earned Hicky the enmity among his own. He often used nicknames for particular British officials and notable personalities in his newspaper.

In the same year, i.e. 1780,  as a set back and as a stiff competition appeared another newspaper with better content presentation called the Indian Gazette by Peter Read and B. Messinck. Hicky also fell in the bad books of Warren Hastings, the Governor-General after having written against the Governor himself, along with ‘Simeon Droz, Colonel Thomas Dean Pearse and a Swedish Missionary, John Zachariah Kiernander’ (Natarajan, 1955). Hicky’s vicious writings against many top officials brought suit after suit on him, to an extent that he was imprisoned, but he still wrote from the prison. However, the incidents took a toll and Hicky was reduced to utter poverty which gradually crushed the newspaper itself within a span of two years.  

“Four years later followed the Calcutta Gazette, published under the direct patronage of Government, and in the following year, came the Bengal Journal and a monthly, the Oriental Magazine of Calcutta Amusements. With the Calcutta Chronicle which was published in 1786, there were four weekly newspapers and one monthly magazine published from Calcutta.” (Natarajan, 1955)

In 1785, Richard Johnson, the Government Printer started the first newspaper of Madras called the Madras Courier.

In 1789, The Bombay Herald, Bombay (currently Mumbai’s) first newspaper was published which was followed by The Courier in 1790, which carried advertisements in the Gujarati language. Bombay Gazette another paper was published a year later in 1791, but was gradually merged with the Bombay Herald for purposes of Official notifications.

The Madras Courier had a smooth run for almost ten years, until it was followed by the printing of another newspaper called the Madras Gazette in 1795 by R. Williams and another paper called the India Herald. But, the India Herald ran into troubled waters as it was unauthorised and the owner Humphreys was deported to England. However, it is said that he managed to escape the ship. The Madras Gazette too underwent serious troubles with the government trying to gag its movements with an order to submit the content of the newspaper for scrutiny before its publication. Stringent measures were taken and free postage facilities were withdrawn from the paper.

The newspapers primarily contained material of interest to the foreign population in India. They were hardly more than 100 or 200 in circulation unlike today. What is to be noted over here is that despite the fact that there were no rules laid down by law, if a person started a newspaper who was not in good terms or without the acknowledgement of Government officials, he was deported forthright. On the other hand, if a newspaper erred by printing something that irked the officials, the primary punishment was the cancellation of all postal privileges, the second step was a pre-censorship and gradually deportation. And papers like the Bombay Gazette who ran into trouble due to an article written on the conduct of the Police were asked to send proof sheets for scrutiny before publication, while, those of the likes of William Duane, were deported.

The British Government and the East Indian company were terrified of the press and the bad publicity it got them which led to stringent actions. There came a point where under the bureaucracy of Lord Wellesley, the Press was suppressed or in other words it was put under rigid control. By 1807 more rigid rules surfaced to control the press. The Marquees of Wellesley took upon himself the role of a dominant ruler in India much to the displeasure of Tipu Sultan, the French and the European community in India. Lord Wellesley feared that the press provided news to the likes of Tipu Sultan. And in his attempt to stop news from circulating, he began the gagging of newspapers. However, the more he attempted the gagging, the number of anonymous papers and pamphlets rose.  

It is said that in the year 1791, in Bengal, William Duane acquired the Bengal Journal in partnership with Messrs Dimkin and Cassan. He was admonished for printing the news of the death of Lord Cornwallis which was considered to be a rumour. While on the verge of being deported, it was confirmed by a French agent, M Fumeron that the Colonel had indeed died, which led to the deportation being stalled. However, William Duane could not continue in his position as editor and he gradually started another paper called the ‘Indian World’. But William Duane was already under scrutiny and was harassed time and again gradually leading to his forced deportation along with his three adopted kids from India.

In 1798, another individual Dr Charles Maclean, who had started 'The Bengal Hurkaru', was initially detained, but despite the apology rendered, was deported. This deportation gradually in the long run led to the downfall of Lord Wellesley, under whom gagging of the press had turned into a common feature. The primary reason being, Dr Maclean published the case of Lord Wellesley in England.

By the time, Lord Hastings took up as Governor General in 1813 years later, many newspapers were stringently already under control of the authorities. Although, Hastings was considered to be far more liberal as compared to prior British officials. Thus, despite the numerous deportations, gagging, threats, raids and imprisonments, the press was not to be suppressed at the hands of a gaging tyrant and rose with anonymity in the form of books, papers and pamphlets without names of the author nor the printer.

The years between 1813 and 1818 saw a strategic increase in publications in different languages. Due to an argument that happened between the then Chief Secretary and Press Censor, William Butterworth Bailey and Mr Heatly, son of an European British Subject and an Indian mother,  and the proprietor editor of a newspaper in Calcutta called the ‘Morning Post’, the laws that censored the press went through changes again. The heated argument was pursued by Mr Heatly who refused to edit his writings given the fact that he was an Indian and not a British national and hence not subject to the rules of censorship. In an atmosphere like this, Lord Hastings, finally took a very important decision which changed the then aggressive scenario of Press Gag. 

Press censorship was gradually dispensed by a regulation issued on August 19, 1818, and the discretion of the matters being printed was left to the Editors themselves. It was however, warned that the editors would be held for any article that was published in flouting of the rules that had existed. He editors were to submit a copy of their publication in the Chief Secretary’s office.

In 1813, the Anglican and Presbyterian churches were established under license in India. By 1814, a Presbyterian church minister, Rev Samuel James Bryce, got the ownership of the ‘Asiatic Mirror’. He too landed up in a controversy due to the article printed in his magazine.

During this period, Raja Rammohan Roy the stalwart Indian Freedom fighter made an appearance. In 1818, Ganga Kishore (Ganghadar) Bhattacharya, a native of Bahar village, near Serampore, Bengal, started the first Bangla weekly, ‘Bangal Gazette,’ with support from Raja Rammohan Roy.  He owned a press called Bengali printing press along with a business partner. He had a series of books printed too and was held in high esteem. However, the newspaper was barely in print for a year. In the same year, John Burton and James  Mackenzie attained the rights to publish ‘The Guardian’.The condition to print this particular paper was that matters of morality would take precedence over other topics.

Meanwhile, the Baptist Missionaries of Serampore began their printing venture by publishing a vernacular paper in Bengali language, called the Samachar Durpan,  a monthly magazine in Bengali called ‘Dig-Durshan’ and another English periodical, termed ‘Friend of India’. Dig Durshan and Friend of India succumbed to financial pressures by the year 1827. However, it is said that Samachar Durpan, which was a paper primarily meant for the propogation of Christian Faith, had a long run till 1840. The reason being that despite its Christian outlook, this paper carried a vast amount of ‘information from 60 stations in the Zillas of Bengal’. (Natarajan, 1955)

Another Britisher James Silk Buckingham known as a man of principal due to his protest against the carrying of slaves when he was commander of a convoy of ships, started the Calcutta Journal. It was biweekly of 8 pages. It is said that he described the editors functions as, “to admonish the Governors of their duties to warn them furiously of their faults and to tell disagreeable truths.” (Quoted in Natarajan, 1955). His stand led to him being deported in the year 1823. But it is said that Buckingham did not quit journalism and started another paper in England called the ‘Oriental Herald’ where is continuously exposed the administration in India. Buckingham and Raja Rammohan Roy shared a great camaraderie together and had mutual respect for each other’s views.

Raja Rammohan Roy was a social reformer, and had gained a vast experience at a young age due to his travels. He contributed articles to many weeklies and periodicals. He took a strong stand against the abominable practice of Sati. Sati was gradually banned in 1829 by Lord William Bentick. But one could credit Raja Rammohan Roy for being a forerunner as prepared the minds of the people against Sati which was a ritual prominently practiced as an inherent part of religion. Although, he had been opposed on many fronts, Raja Rammohan Roy continued his fight against Sati. He also propagated the learning of English and other social reforms. This opposition by many Hindus, could be one of the reasons that he did not directly involve his name along with Gangadhar at the publication of the Bengal Gazette albeit the fact that he was the brainchild behind the paper.

Raja Rammohan Roy was also vary of Christian literature printed by the Missionaries of Serampore. This gave him an added reason to write and publish. Furthermore, it is said that he was interested in making the Government aware of the problems of the natives so that they could be closer to the people by understanding their needs. And for this “the role model was British rule as it is obtained in the UK. Incidentally Raja Rammohan Roy and many of his contemporaries and friends, notably Dadabhai Naoroji and Surendranath Banerjee were unashamed admirers of the liberal establishment in Britain and individually set themselves the task of prevailing upon the crown to extend the system to India. Their ultimate aim to have more Indians participate in administration.” (G.S.Bhargava, 2005)

Raja Rammohan Roy is credited with the publishing of three newspapers. While the date is a bit disputed, he started ‘Sambaad Kaumidi’ along with Bhowani Charan Banerjee in 1821. After about 13 years Bowani parted ways with Roy, as a result it was temporarily stalled by May 1822. He also started another Persian weekly called the ‘Mirat-ul-Akhbar’ and the English Periodical, ‘Brahminical Magazine’, to counter the Serampore Missionaries. It is also said the Roy translated many Sanskrit texts into Bengali and published them. He with like minded social reformers spoke against many social evils. “In Andhra Pradesh, which was then a part of the Madras Presidency, The Raja’s Ideas and actions inspired the movement for prohibition of child marriage and popularisation of widow remarriage. He was the role model for the leaders of this movement notable Kandukuri Veeraisalingam.” (G.S.Bhargava, 2005)  

 

Bhowani also gradually started another Paper called Samachar Chandrika. After Roy’s initiative in publishing  the Persian paper, there were other vernacular papers called “Jam-i- Jahan-Numa in Persian and another in Urdu, Hurree Hur Dutt with Lalla Sadha Sook as editor the Shams-ul- Akhbar  by Moothur Mohan Mitter and  Munneeram Thacoor followed suit”. (G.S.Bhargava, 2005)

In Mumbai (July, 1822) Mumbai-Na-Samachar, a Gujarati paper was started by Fardoonji Marzban which gradually became Bombay Samachar. The paper was initially a weekly but gradually became a biweekly in its long run. Fardoonji, a Parsi Scholar, can be righty attributed with the growth of the Gujarati literature as he not only printed a paper but also a Gujarati Calendar. However, it is to be noted that even Mirat -ul-Akhbar landed in trouble with the Government and Roy had to cease the publication.

There were other newspapers, like John Bull (1822) by eight officials of the East India Company, The Scotsman in the East (1824), by Dr. Muston, Weekly Gleaner(1824), by Patrick Crichton, The Columbian Press Gazette (1824), by Monte de Rozario, Quarterly Oriental Magazine (1825), by Dr Bryce, Bengal Chronicle (1826), by James Sutherland, Kaleidoscope (1828) by David Drummond and H.L.V. de Rozario, Oodunt Martund (1826)- a newspaper in Hindi by Joogul Kishore Sookal, Calcutta Chronicle (1827) by William Adam, Calcutta Gazette and Commercial advertiser (1828) by Villiers Holcroft and the Gospel Investigator (1828) by Emmanuel Robam.  Sookal who printed the Oodunt Martund – a Hindi newspaper, appealed for a concession in postal fees for the first 8 copies of his paper, but was rejected. The ‘Calcutta Chronicle’ by William Adam also found his license being withdrawn. William Adam was a good friend of Raja Rammohan Roy and had strong views on certain issues which lead to a tiff between him and the government.

 Meanwhile, when Raja Rammohan roy had ceased printing, the Bengal Herald or Weekly intelligence was launched by Robert Montgomery Martin and Neil Rutton Haldar which was printed in English, Bengali, Persian and Nagri. Another weekly ‘Banga Dhoot’ was published in Bengali by Dwarkanath Tagore an initiative which found the interest of Raja Rammohan Roy himself. The Reformer was published by Prasanna Kumar. By the year 1830, due to stringent laws, threats and financial crisis many newspapers either closed down or were merged into others.

Under the governorship of Sir John Malcolm, two official papers saw the light of the day, Namely, the Bombay Government Gazette and the Calcutta Gazette. The Bombay Courier which had published all Government advertisements had complained about a loss of 4000 pounds, so as an economical measure, these papers were brought into existence. During this period, other newspapers also came into existence. The Jam-e-Jamshed by Pestonji Maneqji began in 1831 and is still in circulation, and The Mumbai Samachar became a daily in 1832. 

 

Meanwhile, on January 6, 1832,  Bal Shastri Jambhekar launched the first Anglo-Marathi Weekly called the Bombay Durpun in association with Rugoonath Hurryochunderjee and Junardhan Wessoodewjee which lasted till 1840. It was bilingual with both English and Marathi. The other papers also included Dnyanprakash by Krishnaji Trymbak Ranade on February 12, 1849, in Marathi amidst others.

The Mumbai Vartaman was initiated by Nowraki Dorabji Chandaru in 1880. In 1884, Din Bandhu was printed as a voice of the labour classes by Narayan Meghaji Lokhande which reached a circulation of around 1650 copies. In 1881, freedom fighter Bal Gangadhar Tilak started the Kesari, a newspaper that gained a large prominence during the freedom struggle of India and reached upto a mighty circulation of 22,000 copies  by 1908.

In Karnataka, the first Kannada newspaper to be printed was the Mangaluru Samachara by Hermann Friedrich Mogling in the year 1843. While Rajyasamacharam was the first newspaper in Malyalam printed in the year 1847 for the purposes of the propogation of Christianity by Hermann Gundert in Thalassery. This was followed by Pashchimodayam (1847), Deepika (1887) and Malayala Manorama (1890) by Kandathil Varghese Mappillai.

The first Newspaper in Tamil Language was started by G. Subramanya Aiyer, in the year 1882 and was called the Swadesamitran and had a run till the year 1934.

Dadabhai Naoroji, was a founder of the ‘Voice of India’ and the ‘Indian Spectator’ which he began in Mumbai (then Bombay) in 1885 which gave primary focus to the happenings in London as compared to local events which were mentioned briefly. Thus, Social reformers actually used media as a powerful tool in wringing in reforms and raising the ante against social evils.

Conclusion:

Thus, India has a very large and rich History of Journalism. While, most of the Britishers initially started the papers, the people of the Country, gradually took over with great gusto the pen- a tool mightier than the sword. The newspapers indeed became a channel of Information education and major contributor in the freedom struggle under the patronage of Stalwart leaders.

I would suggest the reading of Natarajan's book, History of Journalism in India, for a better and detailed study. Also the notes by Dr Padmanabhan for the Calicut University which are freely available on the Internet. Although , I have added details from varied sources as the need of students differs from University to University, reading added material always benefits.

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[1] https://www.britannica.com/topic/journalism, (Accessed- Jan 11-01-2019)