MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
Notes by Sis P Michelle Mathias fsp
A Model is basically a representation of a concept in a visual format. Various scholars have defined the term ‘Model’. In this, lesson, we look at Models in the field of Mass Communication.
David Mortensen: “In the broadest sense, a model is a systematic representation of an object or event in idealized and abstract form. Models are somewhat arbitrary by their nature. The act of abstracting eliminates certain details to focus on essential factors. The key to the usefulness of a model is the degree to which it conforms--in point-by-point correspondence-to the underlying determinants of communicative behaviour.” (Mortensen, 1972)[1]
Mujibul Hasan: Model is a plan or pattern. A Model gives a easiest perception of something to be done. Communication Models refer to the conceptual model used to describe the human communication process. (Hasan, 2012)[2]
West & Turner (2007): Each model sheds light on the development of communication, but emphasizes different parts of the communication process. The models provide pictures, or visual representations, of complex interactions. They are useful because they simplify the basic structure of communication and can help us to understand that structure not just verbally, but also visually. Most importantly, they identify the various elements of communication and serve as a kind of map to show how different parts of the communication process are interrelated.[3]
Denis McQuail : A model is a simplified description in graphic form of some aspect of reality. A model of communication seeks to show the main elements of any structure or process of human social action and the relations between these elements, plus any flow or exchange that takes place. (McQuail, 2008)[4]
Barnlund: A model is an attempt to recreate in physical or symbolic form the relationships alleged to exist among the objects or forces being investigated. It may consist of a complex arrangement of wires and relays built by a neurologist to reproduce the reflex loops of the nervous system, or an elaborate structure of sticks and wooden balls arranged by a chemist to duplicate the DNA molecule. Although models are as diverse as the questions men phrase in their search for knowledge, they can be classified broadly as to purpose and material.[5]
However, Models are not the end of the road representations of a concept. Kaplan (1964) states that “The danger is that the model limits our awareness of unexplored possibilities of conceptualization. We tinker with the model when we might be better occupied with the subject-matter itself. In many areas of human behaviour, our knowledge is on the level of folk wisdom ... incorporating it in a model does not automatically give such knowledge scientific status. The majority of our ideas is usually a matter of slow growth, which cannot be forced.... Closure is premature if it lays down the lines for our thinking to follow when we do not know enough to say even whether one direction or another is the more promising. Building a model, in short, may crystallize our thoughts at a stage when they are better left in solution, to allow new compounds to precipitate [p. 279][6]
We now look at some of the different Models in Communication. We will be looking at the four types of models they are:
Linear or transmission models of communication
Ellis, R. and McClintock, A. (1990) state that the linear or transmission model of communication describes communication as a linear, one-way process in which a sender intentionally transmits the message to a receiver.[7]
- The linear model focuses on the Sender on the sender who sends the message. The receiver is basically just a recipient whose response is not considered in this type of a model.
- Noise can be a factor of disturbance or interruption in the process of communication in this model.
- The model is linear- often shown as moving in one-direction as the response or feedback is not focused on nor shown as part of the model.
- The initially developed models of Aristotle, Lasswell, Shannon and Weaver, Berlo's S-M-C-R are all linear in structure.
However, this simple structure of the Linear models was good for the start but were not symbolic of the complex structure of communication. Hence, newer models and theories arose.
Linear Model- Aristotle’s Rhetoric Model of Communication (384-322 B.C)
Shannon’s model is directed at solving the problem of “noise in the channel” when an electrical signal is transmitted from one machine to another. The small unlabeled box in the middle of the diagram represents the physical channel, such as a telephone line, fiber optic cable, or computer chip. (Paul Cobley, Peter J. Schulz, Theories and Models of Communication, Handbook of Communication Science)
Shannon emphasized that his ‘mathematical theory of communication’ is relevant only for understanding and solving the engineering problem of signal transmission, He refrained from any implication the solution of this problem could have or understanding the ‘semantic aspects of communication’. Indeed, he originally presented not ‘the’ but ‘a’ mathematical theory of communication (Shannon 1948), Leaving the selection of the holder definite article to Weaver, who put the book together out of Shannon’s papers. But Shannon’s reluctance to generalize his theory could not prevent his and Weaver’s ideas on ‘communication’ from being quickly and enthusiastically received as well as fervently rejected by social scientists (as regards reception, fakobson 1981; Sense 1969; and with respect to rejection, Hayles 1999).
- A source of information which produced a message (sender)
- A transmitter which encoded the message into signals for transmission.
- A channel through which the signals were to be transmitted
- A receiver that decoded the message from the signals that were transmitted.
- A destination where the message arrived after the decoding.
- The concept of 'Noise' that hampers or interferes when communication is occurring.
- Being a linear model, there is no feedback
- As there is no feedback, the clarity and the understanding of the decoded message was questionable.
- Situational or contextual noise at that point of time was not taken into concern.
- It is not known as to how effective the received meaning was and if it lead to an affect in behaviour or action of the recipient.
Linear
Model
Harold Lasswell's model is founded on a 5 W's approach. This model can be defined in just one statement – WHO says WHAT to WHOM through WHICH channel with WHAT EFFECT.
- A linear Model
- It is based on effect of the sender’s message on receiver.
- There is no feedback for the message.
- It is very linear in nature (researchers say communication is always in circular motion because of feedback element)
- It presents communication as more of a persuasive process rather than an informative process as the focus is on the effect that the communication causes on the receiver.
- Surveillance of the environment
- Co-relation of components of society
- Cultural transmissions between generations.
Linear
Model SMCR Model
The same goes for the Message and the manner in which it is communicated. The content of the message and the way in which it is structured and delivered or transmitted matters. Here, Code is attributed to the form in which the Message may be communicated. Later researchers have attributed to Code as either textual, verbal or visual style of encoding one's message.
Berlo has also shown the different ways in which communication can occur by showing different aspects of the ‘Channel.’ He uses the five senses of the Human being to explain the channel through which the message is given.
The Receiver too receives his or her message based on the factors that influence the receiver. The factors that create an influence on the Sender while sending a message are also factors that influence a Receiver and the manner in which the receiver receives the message. Sender and receiver are surrounded by factors that influence them individually which the message is sent across.
Communication skills: If an individual has good communication skills, the communication surely is better as the receiver is able to grasp the message quickly. Poor communication skills can hamper a healthy communication. Communication skills include varied skills like fluent speaking, clear presentation, clear reading/ writing, careful listening, avoiding clutter, cutting the other person short, etc.
Attitude: The sender’s attitude is of equal importance as is the recipient’s attitude in order to create the impact of the message. A person’s attitude depends on his/ her understanding of self, the other, and the environment around. The attitude can create a whole lot of meaning and influence the effect of the message. A sender and a recipient’s attitude matters.
Knowledge: Communication can be powerful, when the individual communicating has in-depth knowledge of the topic or the subject that one is talking about. This teamed with an open attitude also allows a give and take of knowledge, sharing of view- points and a better outcome of the communication. Knowledge on the subject of conversation is important, all the more, since today’s technology does not permit to you go laxed. People verify and respond to ignorance.
Social Systems: As human beings, we are born into a family that belongs to a particular social system. May be a particular family unit, community, schooling institute, organisation, industry, etc. The individual’s location, socioeconomic status, race, religion, societal function, are all influential factors.
Every individual communicates and every recipient receives and interprets the message according to these factors that are constantly within us and are an integral part of us.
Culture: As human beings, we are born into a family that follows, certain traits that includes, their faith practices, their beliefs, their community or ethnic orientations, their values, the laws they abide with, the societal norms they follow, and many other social factors. Cultural nuances enhance any communication. What might be appealing and beautiful in one culture, maybe highly derogatory in another culture.
While communicating, it is advisable to understand the recipient of the message and the cultural background before the message is spoken. On the other hand, a recipient too must understand, the communicator’s cultural context before retaliating or reacting.
- It is a linear Model so, there is no concept of feedback.
- There is no concept of Noise or Barriers in this model of communication
- Some scholars mention the lack of the concept of the sixth sense or feelings that can effect communication.
Circular Model of communication:
Osgood- Schramm’s ‘Circular’ Model of Communication
This model is basically interactive. The Osgood and Schramm Model is called a Circular Model as it emphasises on the circular nature of communication.
The participants i.e. the sender and the receiver are constantly sending and receiving messages. It is here that they swap their roles as encoder and decoder and vice versa. During the process of Encoding and Decoding, Interpretation occurs based on an individual’s understanding of the message. It is not a linear one way model ; rather, it is circular. Sending and Receiving is a continual process.
The model also denotes that every time a message is received interpretation occurs. The decoding and interpretation are both important elements of communication.[1]
Interactive Model of communication:
Interactive Models of Communication took a step ahead of Linear models. While Linear models did not consider feedback or the response of the Receiver/ Recipient of the message, Interactive models included feedback.
Feedback, is the response to a message sent by the sender. Wilbur Schramm’s (1955) Model of Communication included the element of feedback. Here, we look at the model by Schramm which he adapted from Shannon and Weaver and improvised on.
Schramm gradually worked on his first model and introduced the concept of the ‘Field of Experience’ which is today interpreted as ‘Context’. While, Osgood and Schramm’s Model is interactive in nature, we have defined it as a circular model, based on its original name and defined it as the same.
Interactive Models- Schramm’s
Model of Communication
Wilbur Schramm elaborated on the model of Shannon and Weaver and arrived at the conclusion that both the Sender and the Receiver have the encoding and decoding activities occurring simultaneously. He thus made a model that showed a two- way possibility with the concept of a feedback.He also included the concept of the 'field of experience'.
Schramm’s model views communication as a process wherein the message is transmitted using a medium by a sender to a receiver.
- The message is encoded by the sender and sent using correct verbal and visual symbols and transmitted.
- The receiver decodes the message and can respond to this message from the sender which will confirm the correct reception of the message that was sent. Thus, a feedback loop is created.
- The concept of noise, interference and field of experience was included in this model by Schramm.
Concept of Noise:
Noise is non-intelligent
interruptions in the message process: it can happen at any point in the
process, and acts to blot out part or all of the message.(Blythe 2009, Sage Publications)
Concept of Interference:
Interference is intelligent interruptions in the message process, in other words alternative messages that confuse the receiver. (Blythe 2009, Sage Publications)
Concept of field of experience:
It is said the by 1971, Schramm published the updated version of his model wherein, he included the concept of the ‘Field of Experience’ or the ‘Psychological frame of reference’ within which the communication occurs. It is this ‘Field of Experience’ that broadened the concept of a common field of understanding between the sender and the recipient. An individual’s experience, culture, background influences his or her communication. The communication between people can be smooth when “the sender’s field of experience and the receiver’s field of experience must overlap, at least to the extent of having a common language.” (Blythe 2009, Sage Publications). An absence of this common field of experience could contribute to a lack of understanding or varied types of noise that emanate from a misunderstood communication.
The model which was initially developed as a linear model with the gradual changes that Schramm developed was considered to be an interactional model. Wilbur Schramm stated that communicator’s communicate their message based on their field of Experience. The receivers of this message have their own field of experience while decoding this message and giving a feedback. The more the field of experience’s overlapped, the better was the understanding of the message.
Transactional Model of communication:
Although an interactive model, was a step ahead in the study of communication models, the model still fell short of describing the dynamic nature of communication. It was preferable for interpersonal communication.
Wrench et al., (2008) say that “A shortcoming of the interactive model was that it didn’t portray communication as changing over time as a result of what happens between people. For example, new employees are more reserved in conversations with co-workers than they are after months on the job, getting to know others and organisational norms. To be accurate, a model should include the feature of time and should depict communication as varying, not constant.”[8]
Amy Corey states “that this model views communication as a transaction. In other words, communication is a cooperative action in which communicators co-create the process, outcome and effectiveness of the interaction… Unlike the linear model in which meaning is sent from one person to another, also unlike the interactional model in which understanding is achieved through feedback, people create shared meaning in a more dynamic process in the transactional model”.[9] In a transactional Model the sender and receiver are communicators.
Tranactional Models- Barnlund’s Transactional Model of Communication
Dean C. Barnlund’s Transactional Model (1970) [10]
Picture credit: Dean C. Barnlund.(1970)
Dean C. Barnlund’s Transactional Model (1970) is a multi-layered feedback system, wherein both the communicators, i.e the ‘sender and receiver’ are equally involved in sending messages constantly and responding with a feedback. The feedback is the message sent from either of the communicators which furthers the communication. This entire chapter has been accessed directly from his research.
The model incudes ‘Cues’ which basically means a sign or a signal that shows or indicates something.
As per Barnlund Individuals or persons give out cues. These are of three types:
1. Public cues,
2. Private cues and
3. Behavioral cues.
Public cues:
Public cues (Cpu) include the cues that are physical, environmental, artificial / natural or man-made. A public cue is any object or sound or circumstance that is a part of, or available to, the perceptual field of all potential communicants. For instance, a person visits a doctor’s clinic, and there is a large Photo frame hanging there. This frame becomes a Public cue as it already exists there visible to all, and outside the control of the person entering the clinic.
Barnlund state that there are two types of public cues: These are the Natural Cues and the Artificial Cues.
Natural cues are those cues that are “supplied by the physical world without the intervention of man, include atmospheric conditions of temperature and humidity, the visual and tactual properties of minerals, the colour and forms of vegetable life and climatic crises such as hurricanes and rainstorms”.
Artificial cues are those cues that arise from human's modification and manipulation of his environment, include the effects created by the processing and arranging of wood, steel and glass, the weaving and patterning of clothing, the control of climate through air or sound conditioning.
Therefore, the public clues would include, the typical smell that exists in a clinic or the sunlight bursting on to the seat that the individual is sitting on.
Private cues:
Private cues (Cpr) include senses of a person and can be verbal as well as non-verbal. These could include “the sounds heard through a pair of earphones, the sights visible through opera glasses, or the vast array of cues that have their origin in the taste buds or viscera of the interpreter”.
For e.g.: The private cues (Cpr) for the person visiting the clinic include the words and pictures s/he finds as s/he riffles through a magazine, the assortment of objects s/he finds in one’s dress pocket, or a sudden twitch of pain s/he notices in the chest.
Public and private cues may be verbal or nonverbal in form but the critical quality they share is that they were brought into existence and remain beyond the control of the communicants.
Behavioral cues:
Behavioral cues are cues that could be verbal (Cbehv) or non-verbal (Cbehnv). They are behavioural patterns occuring during communication. They are generated by and are substantially under the control of the individual. For instance, behavioural cues, are the individual’s observations of things around, his/her unconscious mannerisms in holding a book or slouching in the chair. They differ from public cues in that they are initiated or controlled by the communicant.
The jagged lines (ΛΛΛ) at either end of the series of public, private and behavioural cues simply illustrate that the number of cues to which meaning may be assigned is probably without limit. But, although unlimited in number, they can be ordered in terms of their attractiveness, or potency, for any viewer.
The antiseptic smell in the clinic which reinforces an individual’s confidence in the doctor's ability to diagnose his/her illness is ‘CPU+’. As the individual peruses through the magazine in the clinic ‘CPRO’, s/he is aware that the chair s/he is seated on is very comfortable ‘CPR+’.
If the individual suddenly looks up at a painting on the clinic wall, but is unable to decode it’s meaning then it is (CPUo). When the nurse calls, s/he fumbles and drops the magazine (CBEHnv-) and rises, brushes oneself and walks into the doctor’s room with dignity (CBEHnv+)·
The communication depends on the Socio-Cultural and Relational Contexts. All cues are included. Noise is included in this model, as something that hampers or disturbs the communication.
This picture below is the sign of two communicators invloved.
Picture credit: Dean C. Barnlund.(1970)
[1] C. David Mortensen, Communication: The Study of Human Communication (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1972), Chapter 2, “Communication Models
[2] Mujibul Hasan, “Need of Effective Communication Model in Teaching Learning Process”, GLOBAL RESEARCH ANALYSIS, Volume : 1 | Issue : 2 | July 2012 • ISSN No 2277 - 8160
[3] West, R., & L.H. Turner. (2007). Introducing communication theories: Analysis and application (3rd ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill.
Amy M. Corey, Chapter 1: Introducing Communication , Open Library, https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/evolutionhumancommunication/chapter/chapter-1/#WestR
[4] Denis McQuail, 2008, Models of Communication, https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405186407.wbiecm089, https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781405186407.wbiecm089
[5] Barnlund, D. C. (n.d.). A Transactional Model Of Communication. Language Behavior, doi:10.1515/9783110878752.43, https://www.degruyter.com/view/book/9783110878752/10.1515/9783110878752.43.xml
[6] Kaplan, A. (1964). The conduct of Enquiry: Methodology for behavioural Science, San Francisco: Chandler, p.279
[7] 1. Ellis, R. and McClintock, A. (1990). You take my meaning: Theory into practice in human communication. London: Edward Arnold.
[8] Jason S. Wrench, Narissra M. Punyanunt-Carter & Katherine S. Thweatt, Models of Interpersonal Communication, Sep 8, 2020, https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Communication/Book%3A_ Interpersonal_Communication_-_A_Mindful_Approach_to_Relationships_ (Wrench_et_al.)/02%3A_ Overview_of_Interpersonal_Communication/2.04%3A_Models_of_Interpersonal_Communication
[9] Amy M. Corey, Chapter 1: Introducing Communication , Open Library, https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/evolutionhumancommunication/chapter/chapter-1/#WestR
[10] Barnlund, D. C. (n.d.). A Transactional Model Of Communication. Language Behavior. doi:10.1515/9783110878752.43, https://www.degruyter.com/view/book/9783110878752/10.1515/9783110878752.43.xml
No comments:
Post a Comment