DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION FOR BJMC- Theories in Development Communication

 

 

Theories of Development Communication

 Notes by Sis Michele Mathias 

Unit 1: 1.4

 

It is necessary to look at the Historical data behind the concept of Development and the various Theories that had initially defined Development, in order to understand this concept better.

 

The Dominant Paradigm

 

From about 1940’s to the 1960’s, a lot of interest developed around Communication Research. Many leading researchers including Daniel Lerner, Everett Rogers, Wilbur Schramm and Pye came out with interesting communication concepts that they felt would aid development massively. According to Rogers (1976), “This concept of development grew out of certain historical events, such as the Industrial Revolution, in Europe and the United States, the colonial experience in Latin America, Africa and Asia, The quantitative empiricism of north America Social Science, and a Capitalistic, Economic/Political Philosophy.”[1] This was the initiation and the promulgation of what is termed as the Dominant paradigm. An approach based on Modernisation, Westernisation and Pro-Innovation.

The entire paradigm was very economical in its approach and shunned traditional and cultural practices which were considered to be slow, old-fashioned, unintellectual and an impediment to development. Development was considered as an outcome of economic growth based on a maximised utilisation of the productive resources of a country through economic prowess and Modernisation.

Rogers (1976) distilled four over-lapping elements in this conception of development[2]:

• 1.     “Economic growth through Industrialisation and accompanying urbanisation was the key to development. The assumption was that the development performance could be quantitatively measured in economic terms.
• 2.     The choice of the scientific method was to be the Western Quantitative Empirical Research, while the technology was meant to be Capital Intensive and Labour Extensive.
• 3.     The process of development planning should be centralised and controlled by economists and bankers.
• 4.     Underdevelopment was mainly due to problems within developing nations rather than in their external relationships with other countries.” 

Development Communication was understood as communication being channelized to promote modern values based on Education, Industrialisation and Adoption of the latest technology. This was called a Dominant Paradigm. This Dominant Paradigm encouraged the values of western science and it had a very economic approach based on two factors. They are:

1. Productive resources a society had
2. Economic institutions to use and to guide the use of the resources (Weaver and Jameson 1978)

The dominant paradigm had its focus on massive industrialisation of the Third-world countries, inclusive of the starting of mega “hydro-electric projects, Steel industries and other manufacturing units” (Melkote and Steeves, 2001) [3]. Mass Media according to Schramm and Lerner was basically a tool to promote the adoption of new ideas and new technology for a speedy development.

Melkote and Steeves highlight that the dominant paradigm promoted a high level of State intervention in the economy and a macro-economic planning focussing massively on rapid economic growth and rate of growth of output (Gross National Product GNP). (Melkote and Steeves, 2001)[4]

Gradually by the 1970’s scholars across the world began questioning this concept of development as they realised, that the dominant paradigm, only gave the Western countries a monopoly to systematically dominate over the Under-developed countries and make them even more dependent on developed nations. The Dominant Paradigm includes other theories such as the Modernisation theory, the Diffusion of Innovation theory and The Passing of the Traditional Society.

 

 

Modernisation theory

 

The Modernisation theory is an integral part of the Dominant Paradigm. This theory suggested that if a country aimed at achieving development, it had to primarily adopt modern day values, scientific education and utilise its productive resources through Industrialisation and maximise the output catering to Economic Growth.

Waisbord (2018) says that “the low rate of agricultural output, the high rate of fertility and mortality, or the low rates of literacy found in the underdeveloped world were explained by the persistence of traditional values and attitudes that prevented modernization.”[5]

The main concept of this theory suggests that the primary reason for under-development in most countries was because they had a primitive ‘cultural’ mindset and were resistant to the adaptation of new means of scientific technology and industrialisation. Therefore, according to the Modernisation theory, countries had to renounce certain traditional and cultural practices and adopt modern day values and ideologies and turn towards science-based practices and industrialisation. “This theory suggested that cultural and information deficits lie underneath development problems and therefore could not be resolved only through three economic assistance.” (Waisbord, 2018)

Describing the Modernisation concept as ‘elitist, vertical and a top-down communication’ Jacob Srampickal, in his research paper, ‘Development and Participatory Communication’ says that, the role of communication was to transfer technological innovations from development agencies to their clients, and to create an appetite for change through raising a climate for modernization among the members of the public. [6]

In the words of Crush (1995) these interwoven changes brought about by the modernisation theory  were motivated by a combination of altruistic, ideological and political-economic motives, and all enable the west to manage, produce and organise the Third-World politically, economically, sociologically, psychologically, scientifically, militarily and perhaps above all, imaginatively.[7]

This theory was criticised by many scholars from the ‘Third World’ (undeveloped and poor nations) and was considered to be another means of Colonisation which would lead to the undeveloped nations depending perennially on the Developed ‘Rich’ Nations. “Moreover, these technologies could not be adapted exactly, as many of these countries lacked basic infrastructure items like electricity and transportation. The dependency argument played an important role in the movement for the New Information and Communication Order in the 1970s (MacBride, 1980).”  

The Modernisation theory is also acknowledged as ‘Modernization-the Economic Model.’

 

The Passing of the Traditional Society

 

Daniel Lerner’s ‘Passing of the Traditional Society’ (1958) is another element of the Modernisation Theory itself.  ‘Passing of the Traditional Society’ is basically a synonym for overcoming primitive cultural practices and adopting modern and new age practices based on modern day values, scientific knowledge and adoption of innovations.

According to this theory, “mass media had the potential to blow the winds of modernisation into isolated traditional communities and replace the structures of life, values and behaviours there with ones seen in modern western societies”[8]. “The emphasis was put on media-centered persuasion activities that could improve literacy and, in turn, allow populations to break free from traditionalism.”[9] (Waisbord, 2018)

This theory promulgated the use of Mass Media in order to educate and inform the traditional societies existing in the undeveloped nations’. The understanding was that Mass Media could be used as ideal tools to transfer new concepts and ideas, thus opening the window of modern values and behaviours from developed countries to the undeveloped ones in order to modernise them in the pursuit of Development. This premise was rejected at a later stage.

 

Diffusion of Innovation Theory

 

Communication theories highlighting the importance of Opinion Leaders have a major influence in many communication practices. Initially, in 1903, a French Sociologist named Gabriel Tarde mentioned the role of Opinion Leaders in his writing. It was further highlighted in the Two Step theory  The premise of the Diffusion of Innovations theory also stems from the same.

This is an extension of the Modernisation theory. This theory basically highlights the steps that go into the adoption of an innovation. Everett Rogers who proposed this theory described four main elements in the process of diffusion of any idea or innovation. These are:

• Innovation, which is any idea considered new by the recipient.
• It’s Communication through certain channels
• Among members of a social system
• Over time (Rogers and Shoemaker, 1971)[10]

Furthermore, Everett Rogers also highlighted the process through which an individual would adopt new innovations. The five steps included in this process of adoption of the innovation include:

1. Awareness
2.  Interest
3. Evaluation
4. Trial
5. Adoption

Let us look at each stage individually. According to Rogers, when there is an innovation that has to be adopted,  

• In the first stage of Awareness, the person gets exposed to the innovation but is not fully informed about the same. The first and the second stage uses Mass media as a means of information along with other cosmopolite influences.
• In the second stage of Interest, the person, tries to seek more information about this innovation that he has seen.
• In the third stage of Evaluation, the person evaluates whether or not, the innovation will suit his current and future needs. At this point of time, local opinion leaders and interpersonal communication creates an impact on the person. This also impacts the next two stages, especially in communities. Waisboard (2018) mentions that “the effectiveness of field workers in transmitting information in agricultural development projects also suggested the importance of interpersonal networks in disseminating innovations” as found in the studies of Lazarsfeld and Katz[11].
• In the stage of Trial, the person decides to adopt it on the basis of a trial for a limited period.
• In the last stage, having gone through the phase of trial and seeing the outcome, decides to adopt the innovation. [12]

Waisbord (2018) rightly says that “the emphasis was put on media-centred persuasion activities that could improve literacy and, in turn, allow populations to break free from traditionalism.”[13]

Those who adopted these innovations were classified into five categories, namely, Innovators, Early Adopters, Early Majority, Late Majorit, Laggards. The innovators were among the prior ones to adopt the innovation, followed by Early Adopters, Early Majority, Late Majority and lastly the Laggards. It was however noticed that there was a great difference in the groups. The Innovators and early adopters were primarily younger with a higher social and financial status. Their mental abilities were better prone to understand the specialised operations. Furthermore, they were far more prone to use cosmopolite information.

5.    

Dependency Theory

 

Scholars in the 70’s realised that the entire dominant Paradigm which was intended to bring in Development Programmes across the world actually in a subtle manner made these countries, many of whom were ravaged by the aftermath of colonialism or war into ‘dependent’ entities. The development programmes did benefit by introducing newer and better means of doing things, travel conveniences and technological boons. However, many of these programmes were utter failures as the recipient country was ravaged, deprived of many facilities and did not have the necessary foundation to see to the carrying out of the development programmes. Certain other programmes backfired as the Development Programmes were purely negligent of the situation in other countries. 

Furthermore, Dependency Theorists realised that such a development categorised nations. Vincent Ferraro in his research paper, ‘Dependency Theory: An Introduction’, highlights this categorisation and defines them. He says, First, dependency characterizes the international system as comprised of two sets of states, variously described as dominant/dependent, centre/periphery or metropolitan/satellite.The dominant states are the advanced industrial nations in the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). The dependent states are those states of Latin America, Asia, and Africa which have low per capita GNPs and which rely heavily on the export of a single commodity for foreign exchange earnings." [14]

Modernisation and Westernisation were based on the premise of totally deriding the existing wisdom and experience of the country, the geographical terrain, the historical heritage, the socio-political strength and the multi-dimensional cultural context of the country. Theotonio Dos Santos rightly defines Dependency as an historical condition which shapes a certain structure of the world economy in a way that it favours some countries to the detriment of others and limits the development possibilities of the subordinate economics. Santos highlights that the the economy of a certain group of countries is thus conditioned by the development and expansion of another economy, to which their own is subjected.[15] (Santos, 1971)

 

It is good for the students to note, that terms like the First World Countries, Second World Countries and Third World Countries are used even today. But many developing countries and the people of these countries including India, find it derogatory. However, for study purpose and to understand history, we need to know that these terms were being used. Albeit the fact, that today scholars are defining the situation differently.

 

Democratic Participant Theory

 

The initial Development models had major lacunae in their conceptualisation as the focus was primarily economics. Therefore, resistance arose in carrying out the model everywhere without considering the socio-cultural-economic policies of any country. Development plans cannot be a standard notion implemented upon everybody across the world. The terrains, atmosphere, geographies, climatic conditions, cultural nuances, backgrounds, community structures, socio-economic-political situations are yards apart. In a country like India, each state has a different culture. And not just a state, withing a state there are cultural difference based on religions, caste, creed, etc. Development has to be inclusive of all. An imposed western module was unsuccessful. The major media channels were either a monopoly of the state or that of Corporates. This was a major cause of concern for people in rural and other discriminated belts of any country. The Democratic Participant Theory provides a new look at things as it emphasises a participatory development that includes the welfare of all and the use of ‘Alternative Media’ which are for more effective due to their interactive nature amongst the people.

The basic principles of the Democratic Participant Theory as stated by McQuail are enlisted here:

1. Individuals and minorities must be able to claim right of access to the media and have their needs served by the media;
2.  Media content and organisations should be free from political and bureaucratic control;
3. The media must serve the needs and interest of recipients; their existence should not be exclusively linked to the need of media organisations, professional workers and advertisers.
4.  Groups, organisations and communities should have their own media;
5. Large scale unidirectional media (compiled by professional media workers in institutions and passed on to consumers) is regarded as less beneficial than small scale, interactive and participatory forms of media; and 
6. Communication is too important to be left to professionals. (McQuail 1989; Roelofse 1996: 59-60)[16]

J. V. Vil’anilam says that Democratic Participant Theory emphasizes ‘communitarianism, and encourages citizens’ participation in community affairs. The dominance of mainstream mass media owned by private or public monopolies was the reason behind the emergence of “underground” publications during the 1960s and 1970s.” He further highlights that alternative media has got a technical boost through the arrival of Social media and that mass communication need not be “uniform, centralized, high-cost, commercialized, professionalized, state controlled or privately controlled. Mass communication can take place without the mass media.’[17]

 

Participatory Communication as a Theory

 

The “Passing of the Traditional Society” indicated that for development it was required that people let go off their primitive, traditional and cultural practices and acquire modern values with the scope of becoming developed nations. However, when the Participatory Paradigm took momentum in the 70’s scholars objected to this prior thought of Modernisation. 

The Participatory Paradigm, highlighted the fact that natives of any given country had knowledge about their own practices, culture, history, geographic terrain, and an expertise that comes over a period of years through observation and learning. This knowledge that existed in the underdeveloped nations could not be simply shunned in the wake of imposing Modernisation and with a total disregard for the wisdom that existed in the nations. Participatory Communication turned out to be a healthy approach as it respected the citizens of any given country and encouraged them to participate in their own welfare, awareness and development.

“Three rationales exist for participatory communication:

1. The native population possesses relevant information regarding their own circumstances and are a unique resource without which a development project might fail.
2. The native population has the fundamental human right to contribute to the formation of their own advancement
3. Inclusion of the native population will draw more support which will in turn facilitate the achievement of common goals.

The theory emphasised that natives who participate in their own development through awareness and conscientisation, will be pro-active in it and will contribute actively to the schemes that are suggested.

The book, ‘Development Communication: Reframing the Role of the Media’ edited by Thomas McPhail states that this theory is closely associated with the concept of development proposed by Paulo Friere. Paulo Friere’s concept of education and development Model which was based on five hinges. These are  Dialogue, Conscientisation, Praxis, Transformation and Critical Consciousness.

“Dialogue: It consists of the back and forth communication between those within development organisations and those they serve.

Conscientisation: It is the acknowledgement, awareness and handling of the inherent power differential and possible disenfranchisement between the organisation and the native population.

Praxis: It involves the ongoing examination of theory and real world practice.

Transformation: It refers to the enlightenment or education of the native population in a way that promotes active consciousness and critical thinking in regards to their situation and/or why certain change implementation is taking place.

Critical Consciousness: It is the active social and political involvement of the beneficiaries.”[18]

 

Social Marketing Theory

 

The new concept of marketing techniques using persuasion in Modernisation and Development in the 60’s later was integrated into promoting Social ideas. This gradually came to be known as the Social Marketing theory. Social values that can contribute to the welfare of the citizens of the country are promoted through persuasion using varied means of marketing and mass media tools. Social Marketing has often been used in Health initiatives in India like Immunisation programmes, Polio vaccination, Breast feeding, anti-smoking campaigns, family planning programmes, Use of Contraceptives, Safe sex to prevent HIV/AIDS, etc,.

Kotler and Zaltman (1971) define it as the design, implementation, and control of programs calculated to influence the acceptability of social ideas and involving consideration of product planning, pricing, communication, distribution, and marketing research”. [19]

Andreasen (1995) defined it as “the adaptation of commercial marketing technologies in order to analyse, plan, execute and evaluate programmes designed to influence the voluntary behaviour of target audiences with an aim to improve their personal welfare and that of the society they belong to.” (Melkkote and Steeves, 2001, Waisboard, 2018)

Meyer and Dearing (1996) term it as the application of management and marketing technologies to pro-social and non-profit programs.[20]

While Social Marketing does have many benefits, in the initial stages, Social Marketing did have a lot of loopholes. For instance, Fox says that in the 60’s many developed countries in their pursuit of virgin markets tried to promote powdered milk instead of Breast Feeding in many Asian, Latin American and African countries. This was basically an economic venture rather than a social value. “Booklets, mass media, loudspeaker vans, and distribution through the medical profession were used in successful promotion campaigns to switch traditional breastfeeding to artificial products.”[21] Heath Sciences have proved that a mother’s milk is the best for a baby as compared to milk generated from other sources. The mother’s milk helps the baby is fighting many ailments and is extremely nutritious. According to Fox, this careless approach by economic institutions of the developed nations eroded the traditional practices of breast feeding in the underdeveloped nations and increased infant mortality rates.

On the other hand, at a later stage, in India the AIDS organisations incorporated strategic Communication strategies to control the spread of HIV/AIDS. Melkote and Steeves (2001) write that some of the immediate objectives were to promulgate a high level of awareness about HIV/AIDS and the preventive measures that could be used to bring in behavioural change. It was in this regard that there was a massive promotion of the use of condoms and sterilisation of needles, etc.[22]

The theory by definition has noble motives but has hitherto been used for private gains. Therefore, Social Marketing albeit being good has to be cautiously looked at as it can and it is often manipulated for the benefit of a corporate motive. Historically there have been instances of wrong practices being enforced. However, it cannot be denied that a lot of good has also come out from Social Marketing and its proper usage. 

 

The above are a few theories in the light of the lessons we are learning in Development Communication.

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[1] Srinivas R. Melkote and H. Leslie Steeves, (2001), Page 72, Communication for development in the third world, Sage Publications India, (14^th print)

[2] Srinivas R. Melkote and H. Leslie Steeves, (2001), Page 72, Communication for development in the third world, Sage Publications India, (14^th print)

[3] Srinivas R. Melkote and H. Leslie Steeves, (2001), Page 73, Communication for development in the third world, Sage Publications India, (14^th print)

[4] Srinivas R. Melkote and H. Leslie Steeves, (2001), Page 75, Communication for development in the third world, Sage Publications India, (14^th print)

[5] Silvio Waisbord, 2018, Family Tree of Theories, Methodologies,and Strategies in Development Communication, J. Servaes (ed.),Handbook of Communication for Development and Social Change, #Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7035-8_56-1, https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-981-10-7035-8_56-1.pdf

[6] Jacob Srampickal, S.J, Development and Participatory Communication, Communication Research Trends, Vol 25 (2006) NO. 2, ISSN: 0144-4646, Downloaded: 06-08-2020

[7] Srinivas R. Melkote and H. Leslie Steeves, (2001), Page 73, Communication for development in the third world, Sage Publications India, (14^th print)

[8] Srinivas R. Melkote and H. Leslie Steeves, (2001), Page 144, Communication for development in the third world, Sage Publications India, (14^th print)

[9] Silvio Waisbord, 2018, Family Tree of Theories, Methodologies,and Strategies in Development Communication, J. Servaes (ed.),Handbook of Communication for Development and Social Change, #Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7035-8_56-1, https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-981-10-7035-8_56-1.pdf

[10] Srinivas R. Melkote and H. Leslie Steeves, (2001), Page 122, Communication for development in the third world, Sage Publications India, (14^th print)

[11] Silvio Waisbord, 2018, Family Tree of Theories, Methodologies,and Strategies in Development Communication, J. Servaes (ed.),Handbook of Communication for Development and Social Change, #Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7035-8_56-1, https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-981-10-7035-8_56-1.pdf

[12] Srinivas R. Melkote and H. Leslie Steeves, (2001), Page 123, Communication for development in the third world, Sage Publications India, (14^th print)

[13] Silvio Waisbord, 2018, Family Tree of Theories, Methodologies,and Strategies in Development Communication, J. Servaes (ed.),Handbook of Communication for Development and Social Change, #Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7035-8_56-1, https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-981-10-7035-8_56-1.pdf

[14] Vincent Ferraro, Dependency Theory: An Introduction, Mount Holyoke College. South Hadley, MA, July 1996

[15] Theotonio Dos Santos, "The Structure of Dependence," in K.T. Fann and Donald C. Hodges, eds., Readings in U.S. Imperialism. Boston: Porter Sargent, 1971, p. 226

[16] Lucas M. Oosthuizen, 2002, p. 46, Media Ethics in the South African Context: An Introduction and Overview, Juta and Company Ltd

[17] J. V. Vil’anilam, Democratic Participant Media Theory, Media, https://mediamagazine.in/content/democratic-participant-media-theory

[18] Ed. Thomas L. McPhail, 2009, Development Communication: Reframing the Role of the Media, p.28, Wiley Blackwell

 [19] Srinivas R. Melkote and H. Leslie Steeves, (2001), Page 127, Communication for development in the third world, Sage Publications India, (14^th print)

[20] Silvio Waisbord, 2018, Family Tree of Theories, Methodologies,and Strategies in Development Communication, J. Servaes (ed.),Handbook of Communication for Development and Social Change, #Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7035-8_56-1, https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-981-10-7035-8_56-1.pdf

[21] Silvio Waisbord, 2018, Family Tree of Theories, Methodologies,and Strategies in Development Communication, J. Servaes (ed.),Handbook of Communication for Development and Social Change, #Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7035-8_56-1, https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-981-10-7035-8_56-1.pdf

[22] Srinivas R. Melkote and H. Leslie Steeves, (2001), Page 138, Communication for development in the third world, Sage Publications India, (14^th print)