Four Theories of the Press or
Normative Theories of the Press
The Four Theories of the Press or the Normative theories of the Press were propounded by Western theorists Fredrick S. Siebert, Theodore Peterson, and Wilbur Schramm in their book, ‘Four Theories of the Press’ (1956).
These theories basically point out to hoe media bodies function in different political scenarios. The Mass media institutions are subject to the constitutional provisions, rules, regulations, needs and government policies of the respective countries they operate in. This is the primary reason why media operate differently in different countries based on the provisions available for its functioning in the deemed country of operation.
Dennis McQuail states that the term normative theories “mainly express ideas of how the media ought to or can be expected to operate under a prevailing set of conditions and values."
While studying the Four theories of the Press, Students are to remember that this was a book published in the yester years, and many countries have changed their stand, based on the changes that have evolved over the period of years in the political scenario. Hence, the theories that we will look at need to studied in their originality and can then be interpreted in academical circles in today’s context. For instance, the word Press, attributed in those days, to the media of those times, if it were to be taken in today’s context, it would include today’s Media including Television, Radio, Internet, etc.
The four theories promulgated in the book are:
1. Authoritarian Theory
2. Libertarian Theory
3. Soviet Communist Theory
4. Social Responsibility Theory
The Authoritarian Theory
Primarily, the ‘Authoritarian Theory’ highlights the functioning of media in countries where the government is Authoritarian and has direct control over all the major affairs of the country including Media. It is easily recognisable as unlike democratic countries, the state of affairs is managed by a small, elite or Royal ruling class. The press can only portray the Government as infallible.
Historically, this theory saw its rise “in the authoritarian climate of the late Renaissance, soon after the invention of printing. In that society, truth was conceived to be, not the product of the great mass of people, but of a few wise men who were in a position to guide and direct their fellows. Thus, truth was thought to be centred near the centre of power”[1].
Media in such countries cannot print any content that questions, undermines, maligns or defames the authority. It is forbidden from printing anything that provokes an opposition of the existing status quo held by the authority in the political scenario of the country. The Press can invite severe punishments from the government if it does not follow suit. Therefore, the Authoritarian theory promulgates the following idea of media:
1. The Press functions in a ‘top-down’* approach and only publishes that which the authority wants it to publish.
2. Censorship has to be practiced when the Authority does not wish to reveal particular information for the masses
3. Media is dependent on the Ruling Authority and ‘freedom of Press’ does not exist.
4. Any view that is considered as an attack on authority or a nonconformity of the official policies or offences against moral codes are considered as criminal offences and are punishable acts.
5. Any foreign media that enters the country has to also submit to the existing norms of the country.
While many countries, do not have total authoritarianism. Such practices are still carried out in countries like North Korea. However, even in countries where there is democracy, there is often a suppression of the press. Media with its revenue generation methods, is often made to toe the line by the ruling governments in many countries. There has been a situation where during the Emergency in India (1975-77), Indian Media was also clamped. When this theory was written, it was written considering the research of that era. The examples and the authoritative stances have changed in the current era. There are different degrees of control exercised by different authoritative regimes.
Summary:
Fred S. Siebert , Theodore Peterson and Wilbur Schramm state in the book that “the growth of political democracy and religious freedom, the expansion of free trade and travel, the acceptance of laissez-faire economics, and the general philosophical climate of the Enlightenment, gradually led to the development of a new theory”[2] towards the late 17th century, and forward. This was the Libertarian theory.
The Libertarian Theory
The Libertarian theory also addressed as the Free Press Theory is the exact opposite of the Authoritarian theory. While Authoritarian theory is a suppression of the freedom of the press, Libertarian theory is the total freedom of the press. The Libertarian theory promulgates the opinion that Media can publish that which it chooses to publish.
The characteristic of the libertarian concept of the function of the press in society which distinguishes it from the other theories discussed in this book ‘Four theories of the press’ are:
· The right and duty of the press to serve as an extra-legal check on government.
· The press was to keep officers of the state from abusing or exceeding their authority.
· It was to be the watchdog over the workings of democracy, ever vigilant to spot and expose any arbitrary or authoritarian practice. And to fulfill this function adequately, the press had to be completely free from control or domination by those elements which it was to guard against.
The conceptualisation of this theory is rooted in the ideas of Liberalism based in the works of thinkers like John Locke of Great Britain in the17th century, John Milton and John Stuart Mill. “Milton referred to a self-righting process if free expression is permitted "let truth and falsehood grapple.” [3] The concept heralds from the thought that human beings innately choose that which they feel is best for them as the moral integrity that exists within human beings guides their reasoning and decision about the good or bad.
Thinkers like Stuart Mill presented four basic propositions in defence of the Libertarian principle. These were:
1. “First, if we silence an opinion, for all we know, we are silencing truth.
2. Secondly, a wrong opinion may contain a grain of truth necessary for finding the whole truth.
3. Third, even if the commonly accepted opinion is the whole truth, the public tends to hold it not on rational grounds but as a prejudice unless it is forced to defend it.
4. Last, unless the commonly held opinion is contested from time to time, it loses its vitality and its effect on conduct and character.”
These were some of the guiding principles in defence of the Libertarian theory. Siebert, who penned the chapter of the Libertarian theory of the Press writes that the functions of the mass media of communication include those of information and entertainment, advertising (to maintain financial status) and to help discover truth, to assist in the process of solving political and social problems by presenting all manner of evidence and opinion as the basis for decisions” [4].
In Libertarian theory, the press is not an instrument of government, but rather a device for presenting evidence and arguments on the basis of which the people can check on government and make up their minds as to policy. Therefore, it is imperative that the press be free from government control and influence.[5]
· The Libertarian theory permits total freedom of the press. Media institutions are given full freedom to publish that which they consider important.
· Press could sell, persuade, inform, entertain, stand for truth, oppose any opinion, question any policy in order to get to the truth.
· Media is permitted to publish an opinion that could oppose the views and policies of the ruling Government.
· Media restrictions are not to be imposed an any media that comes from other countries.
· Libertarian theory promulgates the Open Market policies that permits economic operation of the media without any government interference.
· This theory propogates a private-ownership of media that is free from legal actions when it comes to publishing of any given content on any topic.
While, Self-Regulation of Media is highly appreciated, capitalist media often deflects from its main role as an informer, especially when it comes to news media. More often than not, in a bid to gather revenue, channels tend to focus on news that garners advertising revenue than creating awareness on various issues faced by the people. Therefore, Libertarian theory does stand for the rights of Media but does not guarantee the same rights to the recipients of the content. Certain Media coverage has led to escalating of violence in the country. So, while this model was promulgated in its earlier days, and its closes version can be seen in the United States of America, many countries have turned towards the Social Responsibility Model in practice.
Initially the Great Britain, U.S and other countries practiced this theory. However, given the situation today, most countries today, lean towards the Social Responsibility Model and not the Libertarian theory.
Summary:
The Soviet Communist Theory
At the first glance, the Soviet Communist Theory appears as an offshoot of the Authoritarian Theory. However, there is a difference.
Historically, the revolution in Russia, especially in 1917 saw the rise of Marxist and Communist ideologies. The state, as Marx and Engels saw it, was merely a device for one class to exercise control over others.[8] Marx and Engels themselves never spoke of Mass Media. However, it is assumed from the tenets of Marxist and Communist ideologies that the Press would not be permitted to function as a fourth estate, criticising the Government on various issues and a forum for free expression of views. Lenin had once opined that the newspaper should be a "collective propagandist, collective agitator ...collective organizer".[9]
Furthermore, the technology of the Media would belong to the capitalist class with little or no fair access to the working class. Hence, to avoid these issues, the Press had a responsibility to play. The Communist press would be conceived as an instrument to interpret the doctrine, to carry out the policies of the working class or the militant party. Therefore, the Media in countries with Communist ideologies are viewed differently as compared to the Authoritarian State. The Communist Perspective saw-
1. Media as instruments to be controlled by the state (on behalf of the people) through control of the material facilities of communication.
2. Private ownership of media leads to domination of capitalist Class and is not acceptable.
3. Media should be used as instruments to convey the "word" as interpreted by the Kremlin (Russian Government) reflecting the Soviet official ideology, the Soviet state, and the Soviet "ideal personality".
4. Media should be used as instruments of social change and social control.
5. Media should be instruments of serious purpose. Media use for recreation is considered unworthy.
This led to an approach towards media that seemed like an outshoot from Authoritarian Theory albeit the fact that it was based on the principles of the Communist Ideology. However, the major difference from the authoritarian theory is that the media in this theory had to cater to the development of the worker class and was a tool of propagating Communist ideology.
Students are to note that the book was written when Russia was actually USSR- Union of Soviet Socialist Republics before its dissolution in 1991. And hence, the Press is viewed within the purview of the given time era. Hence, it might not be applicable, the current state of the Press in Russia today.
Summary:
Today, many countries are changing their policies, in a better accommodating spirit, and the theories are to be interpreted differently according to the changing norms of each country. Some scholars also highlight that these theories do not cover many theocratic countries and their Media.
The Social Responsibility Theory
The twentieth century saw the rise of the ‘Social Responsibility Theory’ a path succinctly different from Libertarian theory. It was a step ahead of the Libertarian theory that granted total freedom of the Press.
Historically, Peterson opines that the origin of the Social Responsibility theory can be traced to ‘the Commission on Freedom of the Press in its various books after World War II’ and Freedom of the Press: A Framework of Principle by William E. Hocking, a member of the Commission, which contributed towards making social responsibility a new, integrated theory instead of a mere appendage to the traditional one.
The technological advancement and industrialisation of the 20th century saw the rise of Media powerfully, with it came the voice of criticism. Media was gradually becoming an ubiquitous forum for marketing and persuasion. With technological advancement and the costs of equipment increasing, media saw its ownership going into the hands of a few owners. The Press was criticised for wielding enormous power, invading privacy and at the same time, being subservient to commercial demands and propagating biased personal opinions. The press was called out for compromising with the editorial content for sensationalism, advertising pressures and for the publishing of superficial and morally degrading content. It was also realised, that a press that was libertarian was gradually controlled by the business class, bringing forth content for commercial gains, and disregarding the needs of the local community. The growing popularity of the Radio also led to many individuals releasing radio content which led to a major cacophony. Television and Cinema too had compromised with moral values. In the light of this historical background, the Libertarian Theory received a blow and paved the way for the Social Responsibility Theory.
In his chapter, ‘The Social Responsibility Theory of the Press’, he states that media has the prime functions of
1. Availing service to the political system by providing information, discussion, and debate on public affairs;
2. Enlightening the public so as to make it capable of self-government;
3. Safeguarding the rights of the individual by serving as a watchdog against government;
4. Availing service to the economic system, primarily by bringing together the buyers and sellers of goods and services through the medium of advertising;
5. Providing entertainment;
6. Maintaining its own financial self-sufficiency so as to be free from the pressures of special interests.[6]
According to Peterson the theory highlighted that freedom of the Press came with associated obligations and responsibilities of the Media towards certain function in a contemporary society. The entire discourse of the Social Responsibility theory points out that
· Media should present a truthful, comprehensive, and intelligent account of the day's events in a context which gives them meaning.
· Media should be accurate and should separate news and opinion while, also identifying the veracity of all sources of news.
· Media should represent all view-points objectively including those of minorities and all constituent groups of society.
· Media is responsible for "the presentation and clarification of the goals and values of the society".
· Radio and television are to follow codes of ethical behaviour by enlightening the public; promoting public morals and by keeping advertising in good proportion and maintaining high standards for it. [7]
These were the tenets for the Social Responsibility Theory.
Summary:
Here is a consolidated
chart to aid students who are prone to getting confused, while reading this the first time.
[1] Fred S. Siebert , Theodore Peterson and Wilbur Schramm, (1956). Four theories of the press: The authoritarian, libertarian, social responsibility, and Soviet communist concepts of what the press should be and do, University of Illinois Press
[2] Fred S. Siebert , Theodore Peterson and Wilbur Schramm, (1956). Four theories of the press: The authoritarian, libertarian, social responsibility, and Soviet communist concepts of what the press should be and do, University of Illinois Press
[3] Tripti Malhotra, Theories of the Press, Legal Service India.com, http://www.legalservicesindia.com/article/1316/Theories-of-Press.html
[4] Fred S. Siebert , Theodore Peterson and Wilbur Schramm, (1956). Four theories of the press: The authoritarian, libertarian, social responsibility, and Soviet communist concepts of what the press should be and do, University of Illinois Press
[5] Fred S. Siebert , Theodore Peterson and Wilbur Schramm, (1956). Four theories of the press: The authoritarian, libertarian, social responsibility, and Soviet communist concepts of what the press should be and do, University of Illinois Press
[6] Fred S. Siebert, Theodore Peterson and Wilbur Schramm, (1956). Four theories of the press: The authoritarian, libertarian, social responsibility, and Soviet communist concepts of what the press should be and do, University of Illinois Press
[7] Fred S. Siebert, Theodore Peterson and Wilbur Schramm, (1956). Four theories of the press: The authoritarian, libertarian, social responsibility, and Soviet communist concepts of what the press should be and do, University of Illinois Press
[8] Fred S. Siebert, Theodore Peterson and Wilbur Schramm, (1956). Four theories of the press: The authoritarian, libertarian, social responsibility, and Soviet communist concepts of what the press should be and do, University of Illinois Press
[9] Fred S. Siebert, Theodore Peterson and Wilbur Schramm, (1956). Four theories of the press: The authoritarian, libertarian, social responsibility, and Soviet communist concepts of what the press should be and do, University of Illinois Press
