TYPES OF COMMUNICATION (NOTES)

Types of Communication

There are different types of Communication. These are often categorised differently by different scholars. We will discuss different types of Communication in this blog. Since this chapter is a long one, I have split it into different volumes to help students. This will be a series called Types of Communication-1,2,3,4,5,6

1.     Verbal Communication and Non- Verbal Communication

2.      Inter-personal Communication and Intra-personal Communication

3.     Group Communication and Public Communication

4.     Mass-Line Communication

5.     Formal Communication and Informal Communication

6.  Mass Communication 

VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Verbal Communication is communication based on Language and is verbal. However, we need to remember that verbal communication that uses words could be both Vocal Verbal Communication and Non-Vocal Verbal Communication.

Vocal Verbal Communication 

Vocal Language includes communication which includes spoken Language. It includes Oral Communication. Vocal communication or oral communication refers to messages that are communicate or transmitted using sound waves from one individual to another. Speaking is verbal communication.  'The defining distinction of oral communication is that it involves the production and transmission systems of the human voice and is aimed towards the auditory reception system of one or more other persons.’(Introduction to communication and media studies, edited by John Joshva Raja and Samson Prabhakar) 

Non-Vocal Verbal Communication

Non-vocal verbal communication includes written communication. Written communication that uses language and is verbal is considered to be Non-Vocal Verbal Communication. It can also include Braille, or other similar alternatives to verbal language. 

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NON- VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Albert Mehrabian, Professor  Emeritus of Psychology, UCLA,  known for his publications on the relative importance of verbal and nonverbal messages says, “There are basically three elements in any face-to-face communication:

• Words
• Tone of voice 
• Nonverbal behaviour

Non- verbal communication includes communication without words. Communication need not be only with words. When persons are involved in verbal communication, we often observe other unspoken elements that happen simultaneously which include body movements or body language. A person may speak with a bright smile or with a frown. The smile or the frown add to the meaning of the message. Non-verbal language of communication is equally important as verbal communication.

Dance, architecture, artefacts, rituals, signs like the nodding of the head, etc are all part of Non-Verbal Communication.

There are different elements in Non verbal communication.

In his book, Bodily Communication originally published in 1975, John Michael Argyle, mentions what he calls the five primary functions of Nonverbal Behavior (Argyle, 1988). 

1.     Expression of Emotion - emotions are expressed mainly through the face, body, and voice.

2.     Communication of Interpersonal Attitudes - the establishment and maintenance of relationships if often done through nonverbal signals (tone of voice, gaze, touch, etc.).

3.     Accompany and Support Speech- vocalization and nonverbal behaviors are synchronized with speech in conversation (nodding one’s head or using phrases like “uh-huh” when another is talking).

4.     Self-Presentation - presenting oneself to another through nonverbal attributes like appearance.

5.     Rituals - the use of greetings, handshakes or other rituals.

There are different dimensions of non-verbal communication. 

Dance as Non-verbal Communication: 

Dance is expressive. It communicates. Dance is often used to tell a story or narrate an event. It can also be simply entertainment or creativity. Dance is an integral element of many cultures. Different cultures have traditional dances that depict their culltural heritage and richness.

• Bhava: In India, Many of the classical dances have the element of 'Bhava' which expresses different feelings or emotions like anger, sorrow, anxiety, etc. In other western countries, it could be Ballet or  any other Dance performance.
• Mudra: One of the very important features of Indian classical dance is the Mudra.  Mudra are the hand gestures made by the artists. These are made to narrate a story. Mudras are like sign language. They have a meaning. So, the Mudra for peacock is quite different from a Mudra that indicates a deer.So while Bhavas show expressions, Mudras show the action. Classical dance in India is beautifully mahifested through Bhavas and Mudras, which are non-verbal by nature.

Arti-factual Communication: 

Dress, Ornaments and personal artifacts reveal a lot about one's personality, taste and choices. Arti-factual communication basically means messages that are conveyed by hand-made objects. Thus, one's dressing, aesthetics, colour, jewellery, hairstyle, Clothes, etc are considered arti-factual. Often, our cultures and our society dictate the way we wear clothes, use ornaments or carry ourselves. For instance, in India, especially in Rural India, the symbol of a Married Hindu Woman is indicated by the red vermillion powder that she uses on her forehead on the hair partition. In some other states, the symbol of Marriage is either Red Bangles or Green Bangles or the Mangal Sutra. A funeral Dress code is often white in most corners of India, while for Chirstians in States like Goa, it is Black. These are all elements of Nion-verbal Communication.

Body movements and Gestures and Kinesics: 

A loving gaze from a mother for her child can be very consoling. A pat on the back for a great performance can be very encouraging for a student. An angry look can frighten a student who has done mischief. All these are examples of Body Movements and Gestures. In India, People join hands in a respectful manner while saying Namaste. In some other Asian Countries, people bow to welcome you. In Western countries, People give a warm handshake to welcome you. These are all elements of Non verbal communication.

Gestures are movements of the head, hand, leg or body that express an idea or emotion. 

The word 'Kinesics' means the study of body movements, facial expressions, childlike behaviours and gestures that was developed by Ray L. Birdwhistell in the 1950’s. Facial expressions communicate feelings and emotions,. Often expressions communicate the attitude of a person and give an idea regarding the personality of an individual. A laughter, smile, frown, narrowed eyes, etc could exhibit friendliness, anger or disbelief .

Eye-contact and Oculesics: 

A look can often express emotions. An angry look leads to the narrowing of the eyes or the dilation of the eye lid. Children often have their eyes wide open when they are fascinated or surprised. The study of eye contact and pupil dilation in terms of Non-verbal communication is called Oculesics.

Personal Characteristics: 

The way a person carries oneself does matter. Often, small elements like Body odur, choice of clothes, etc become non-verbal elements of communication.

Touch, Tactile Communication, Haptics: 

A touch can indicate anything. A touch can be consoling, comforting, loving, romantic or even aggravating, especially when it is unwanted. A handshake, a kiss, a pat, holding hands, high fives, are all non-verbal communication. The study of communication using touch was termed as Tactile communication. Today, the study of touch is popularly called Haptics.

Touch in different cultures would mean differently. For instance, in India, in an urban set up like a city, you are permitted to hold hands as friends with either a boy or a girl. But this is totally unacceptable in the remote villages in India. Any element of non-verbal communication is enriched by the culture one lives is. The cultural context, signs and symbols, manner of touch, etc differs not just from country to country but from State to state.

Para-verbal communication, Para-language or Vocalics: 

Para-verbals or para-language is an element of non-verbal communication and conveys emotions and attitudes, consciously or unconsciously. For instance a person who yells while saying that he is not getting irritated has already proved through the tone of his voice that s/he is actually aggravated or irritated. We often hear people saying, "that tone is so sarcastic!" a whistle, a tone, a raise in one's pitch while talking, a deliberately produced cough or sigh, are all indicators of Non-verbal communications that communicate much more than words alone. Vocalics is the study of paralanguage, which includes the vocal qualities that go along with verbal messages, such as pitch, volume, rate, vocal quality, and verbal fillers (Andersen, 1999)

Luis Kumpiluvelil sdb and C. S. Rayudu have written on this topic in their books, 'Basics of Communication' and 'Communication'. They further divide Paralanguage into four parts:

• Voice Qualities: It includes factors such as pitch, resonance, volume, rate and rhythm.
• Vocal characteristics: Embracing laughter, coughing, throat-clearing and sighing.
• Vocal qualifiers: Referring to variations in pitch and volume
• Voice segregates: Including the silent sounds such as ‘ahs’, 'hmm',  and ‘ers’ and pauses. These clues influence meaning.

Silence: 

Silence can actually communicate a lot. A silence could indicate anger, frustration, ignorance or attitude. It could mean a refusal. Silence is also an element of Non-verbal communication.

Space and distance or Proxemics:  

Space or distance around us is an important factor that can speak volumes about individuals. O Minu Agnus says that Proxemics can be defined as the study of means in which individuals make use of the physical space in the interaction between the individuals. This process of owning the space by above said means differ from culture to culture. ( IRWLE VOL. 8 No. I)

If two people are standing close to each other and are communicating freely, it indicates they know each other well to be so close. But at a bus stop, even if you are standing in a queue, and you receive a push from a stranger, it could lead to a fight, if the stranger's push seemed deliberate and transgressing your space. A public speaker speaks from a podium which is at a distance with a crowd that knows him from far. The same public speaker after returning home, takes his baby on his lap and speaks to her. Space matters!

E T Hall, the most popular founder of Intercultural Communication, sets forth a theory about how people react to others at various distances from their own bodies, indicating thereby a sense of territoriality, similar to that shown by animals or birds and develops notation for this purpose.” (Blyth 1976; p 117)

Edward T. Hall described four levels of social distance that occur in different situations

• Intimate distance - 6 to 18 inches (15 to 45 cm): This indicates the physical distance for the ones we are close to or we have an intimate relationship with, such as with close family or a partner. 
• Personal or friend distance - 1.5 to 4 feet (45cm to 1.2 metres): Physical distance at this level usually occurs between people who are family members or close friends as you are comforatble standing in their presence.
• Social distance - 4 to 12 feet (1.2 metres to 3.6 metres): This distance is generally used with individuals who are acquaintances. For instance, it could be your baby sitter, or a co-worker in your company whom you feel free to talk to. 
• Public or audience distance - 12 to 25 feet (3.6 metres to 7.5 metres): This is the distance adopted by speakers, preachers, teachers in a classroom, etc. 

Chronemics: 

Punctuality is often considered as a sign of discipline. Arriving on Time and time consciousness are often used as standards to judge a person in today's world. This example indicates that 'Time and Punctuality' reveal something about a person's life style. Thus time is an element of Non-verbal Communication. The study of this role of Time in the field of Communication, is called Chronemics. 

We have just finished two types of Communication. In my next post, we will go for types of communication- 2 where I discuss 'Inter-personal Communication and Intra-personal Communication'. The only reason for doing this, is the length of the post. Thanks all!

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INTER- PERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Interpersonal Communication is a term that is basically attributed to a face to face communication between two persons. It is communication or a dialogue which is direct and personal and unmediated by media technology. In Inter-personal Communication the feedback is immediate. Context plays an important role in Interpersonal communication. The cultural, environmental and situational context all play a very important role in the process of Interpersonal Communication.

Keval J Kumar highlights three stages of Inter-personal communication in his book, 'Mass Communication in India.' he says,

1.     "The phatic stage: 

    The phatic stage occurs when ritualised greetings are exchanged. They are only a formalised manner of showing interest and attention. The phatic stage then is patterned according to social and cultural norms and rituals.

2.     The personal stage: 

     The second stage, called the personal stage, introduces a more personal element into the conversation. During this period, persons lower their social guard a little and are prepared to take some risk in exposing themselves and their feelings. They may be willing to talk about personal matters such as one’s profession, the family, health problems and the like. Professional discussions rarely go beyond this stage. 

3.     The intimate stage: 
   
   This stage is reserved for friends and relatives as there is a degree of intimacy depending upon the closeness of the relationship. Interpersonal communication achieves its highest form in this mode, and words seem inadequate."

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INTRA- PERSONAL COMMUNICATION

In Intra-personal communication, the sender and the receiver is the same. When one tries to reflect, interpret a map, or do self- talk, it is called Intra-personal communication. Luis Kumpiluvelil sdb says, "Thus, transmission of information takes place through the nerve impulses in the brain rather than the sound in the air or written words on a page."

Intra-personal Communication includes interpreting maps, texts, signs and symbols, the stomach growling when hungry or upset, self talk, reading aloud, writing one’s thoughts or observations, day-dreaming or nocturnal dreaming, reflecting, contemplating and meditating.

Intra-personal communication can be understood as ‘communication within oneself’ or as ‘talking within the individual self or with the self’ (David). Activities such as thinking, calculating, planning, imagining, recollecting and also unconscious activities can be included as the process of intra-personal communication (David Gill and Bridget Adams, 1988:82).

'Intra-personal communication is the origin of all the other forms of communication. The mind is always in communication with internal messages, in processing them constantly before they are expressed outwardly in Public. The self-concept of a person is formed through Intra-personal communication.' (Introduction to communication and media studies, Edited by John Joshva Raja and Samson Prabhakar)

Keval J. Kumar, in his book, 'Mass Communication in India,' says that It ‘is individual reflection, contemplation and meditation. Transcendental meditation for instance is an example of such communication. Conversing with the divine, with spirits and ancestors, may be termed ‘transpersonal’ Communication. This is a vital experience in the religious and monastic life, and in ashrams and places of prayer.

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GROUP COMMUNICATION

When we speak of Group Communication, we are speaking about a group. When two or more persons interact with each, have a common goal and consider themselves as part of a Group, It is termed as Group Communication.

A group according to MacIver is a , “mean any collection of human beings who are brought into social relationship with one another”. Robert K. Merton says “A social group is a number of people who define themselves as members of a group; who expect certain behaviour from members that they do not expect from outsiders and whom others define as belonging to a group.”

While Bottomore defines it a bit more elaborately as he says, “A social group is an aggregate of individuals in which

 (i) definite relations exist between the individuals comprising it, and

(ii) each individual is conscious of the group itself and its symbols”

Group members contribute to building of belonging and become a source of information and Knowledge. Belonging to a group in some cases also gives a feeling of security and can boost Social identity. It is the interaction among the group that gives it nature rather than Physical proximity.

An individual may belong to one or more groups at the same time. For instance, a person may belong to a group of friends from one's college. However, the same individual may belong to another group that is a football lover's group in one's residential colony.

Luis Kumpiluvelil sdb says, 'Group Communication is one form of interpersonal communication. The persons in the group may belong to a homogenous or heterogenous group depending on their social context. Group Communication can take place at formal and informal levels.'

Most Sociologists refer to three types of Groups. These include

1.     Primary Group

2.     Secondary Group  

3.     Reference Group

Primary Group: 

In the words of C.H. Cooley, “By primary I mean those characterised by intimate face-to-face association and co-operation. These are primary in several senses but chiefly in that they are fundamental in framing the social nature and ideals of the individual”. 

Primary groups are usually characterised by physical proximity, small size, similarity of background or culture and  common interests.

Secondary Group: 

A secondary group unlike a Primary group is not small in size. It need not have face to face interactions and the relations are casual and impersonal by nature. According to Ogburn, “The groups which provide experience lacking in intimacy are called secondary groups”.

Secondary groups are goal oriented by nature, however, the roles assigned are clearly specified. The member may be scattered across the globe, but it is the goal that gets them together.

Reference Group:

According to Encyclopedia.com, "The term “reference group” was first used by Hyman, who elaborated the concept and explored some of its properties in 'The Psychology of Status' (1942)." He says,"Reference group is the group to which the individual refers in the sense that he identifies himself either consciously or unconsciously with it.

"In simple words a reference group is any person or group that serves as a point of comparison (for reference) for an individual in forming either general or specific values, attitudes, or behavior (Schiffman & Kanuk, 2000). Given that social networks are conformed in different manners in different cultural contexts, reference group influence varies across cultures (Childers & Rao, 1992).

Reference groups have basically two functions (Kelley, 1965): A normative function that sets and enforces standards for the individual, and a comparative function that serves as a comparison point against which an individual evaluates himself and others (Cocanougher & Bruce, 1971).

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PUBLIC COMMUNICATION

Any information that occurs between individuals and groups of people or Public can be termed as Public Communication. Often Mass media is used as a means to reach out to a large audience.

A speech given on a stage to an audience is one instance of Public communication. Politicians speaking in a public rally, or a huge company advertising on a public platform are examples of Public Communication.

Nicole Papa (2017) says, "Public communication is the sending and receiving of messages on a large scale that impacts groups of people. For the communication to be considered effective, the messages must be clearly and accurately sent and received with a high degree of comprehension."

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MASS LINE COMMUNICATION

The term Mass-Line Communication is attributed to Mao Zedong and the Chinese Communist Party. It is a political, leadership method that involved communication with the masses which was non- manipulative and mindful of their needs and knowledge. It includes communication that consulted the masses themselves. It is a bottom-up type of Communication rather that the top-down approach. 

Encyclopedia of Anti-Revisionism On-Line states two important statements of Chairman Mao, which can be used to describe the Mass line Communication. It says, that Chairman Mao pointed out: “The masses in any given place are generally composed of three parts, the relatively active, the intermediate and the relatively backward. The leaders must therefore be skilled in uniting the small number of active elements around the leadership and must rely on them to raise the level of the intermediate elements and to win over the backward elements.”

We, thus note that in Mass Line communication, the leaders do not dominate and over power the masses, rather, rely on the masses themselves to deal with the issues concerning them. In a communication like this, the masses were to inspired and energised to stand for their rights. It was a similar technique that was observed in the life of Mahatma Gandhi during the freedom struggle in India.

Chairman Mao also wrote that “In all the practical work of our Party, all correct leadership is necessarily ’from the masses, to the masses,’ This means: take the ideas of the masses (scattered and unsystematic ideas) and concentrate them (through study rum them into concentrated and systematic ideas), then go to the masses and propagate and explain these ideas until the masses embrace them as their own, hold fast to them and translate them into action, and test the correctness of these ideas in such action.” (Encyclopedia of Anti-Revisionism On-Line)

In India, Gandhiji led to a massive revolution through movements like the Satyagraha and the Dandi March. Thousands of Indians rallied with him. 

In her book, 'Dynamics Of Mass Communication Theory And Practice' by Uma Narula, writes on the concept of Mass Line Communication. She says, "Mass Line Concept of Communication is identified with non- elitist leadership. Gandhi (India) suggested bottom- up Communication between the people and the development functionaries. This concept of communication presupposes

(i) People’s Participation and leadership in community activities and development

(ii) Opinion leadership as significant communication links between people and the concerned, and development functionaries." 

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BUSINESS COMMUNICATION- FORMAL AND INFORMAL

Formal and Informal Communication are two categories which are often discussed in the realm of Business Communication or communication involved in an organisation.  Communication in an organisation is a means to achieve organisational gols or targets. The transfer of information is important in any given organisation, institute or Business firm to achieve success. Lack of Communication could lead to chaos. In Business Communication or communication in any organisation there are two types of communication. These are:

1.     Formal Communication

2.     Informal Communication

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FORMAL COMMUNICATION 

Formal communication refers to communication that takes place officially in the form of official messages and news. It is an official Communication that occurs through recognised channels and means within a given organisation or Business entity and has a laid down structure.

Thus, Official Letters, Memos, Emails, Reports, Official Minutes of the Meetings, Communication between Superiors and subordinates and vice versa, Communication between employees in the department or across the Department, etc are all part and parcel of Formal Communication.

In simple terms , Formal communication is associated with job or business or work related matters.

Formal Communication has different categories:

i)     Downward communication
ii)    Upward Communication
iii)   Horizontal communication 

iv)   Diagonal communication 

   i) Downward Communication

In Downward Communication, the flow of communication is in a top to down approach, i.e. from the Top Management downwards to the subordinates or employees. Such a communication could comprise of Orders, Plans, Policy Implementation Directives, Rules, Memos, Emails concerning the same, etc.

 ii) Upward Communication 

In Upward Communication, the flow of communication is in a bottom to top approach, i.e. from the lower levels of any institute, organisation or business entity, towards the higher level in the same firm. In simple terms, from the subordinates or employees upwards to the Top Management.

Upward Communication is an important element of Formal Communication, as it is the feedback in response to the communication that comes from the higher level to the lower level. The authority is thus informed about how the desired plans, policies and projects are being responded or attended to.

Upward Communication also permits the subordinates to present their opinion, ideas or plans, project implementation schemes, or their disappointments.

The Higher level or Authority then makes decisions based on the response received through the Upward Communication.

   iii)   Horizontal communication 

As the term suggests, Horizontal communication is communication that happens between members on the same level in an organisation heirarchy. Horizontal Communication is also called Lateral or Side-ward communication.  So, it could be communication between two managers who are working in different departments of the same company, or it could be communication among two subordinates or employees working under one manager or one boss, etc.

Horizontal Communication is equally important as it is an important means of communication that leads to passing of information, co-ordination, attempts at working together, exchange of important Data and Co-ordination of activities that require team effort and project implementations. The communication at this level could be oral or written. However, in business firms, written communication is always a better means to implement important projects.

   iv)   Diagonal communication 

Communication can occur across levels. For instance a manger could communicate with an employee from the production team in a Company. This example shows communication occuring diagonally between different structural levels in an organisation.

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INFORMAL COMMUNICATION 

One of the most common forms of communication is what we term as informal communication. A chat between two individuals working in the office over a cup of tea or between employees during lunch,etc are examples of informal communication. In simple terms any communication in an organisation that is not formal and structured is informal communication. Office gossip is also considered to be an informal type of communication.

Grapevines 

Grapevines is a peculiar term attributed to informal communication that happens in all offices cutting across all departments. It is a natural human instinct to build friendships, start communication in any given workplace. Grapevines can also spread rumours. This is a dangerous trend as the news spreads fast and the management has a tough time controlling such grapevines and maligning  or tarnishing of reputations. It could also be a rumour that puts the firm in danger. Grapevines are often the cause for gossip. However, at times, officials have also made use of grapevines to send across messages. Grapevines are chats that occur during breaks, recesses or in between impromptu chats in offices. Grapevines can be work oriented or people related as it could include casual discussions on work related matters or gossip about members and their errors.

 

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MASS COMMUNICATION

Mass communication is a term that is basically used to define communication that occurs through the use of  Media or Technology-Mediated Channels to a large number of Recipients. In simple words, the transfer of information or messages is thus done mechanically or through any electronic medium. 

In most instances “The sender often is a person in some large media organization, the messages are public, and the audience tends to be large and varied” (Berger 121). However, with new media coming in messages today, the sender can also be a single individual whose post or file or information could reach out to a large number of recipients through social networking forums. 

Thus Mass communication uses Mass media like Print technology (newspapers, books and Magazines), Television, Radio, Internet, Digital technology, etc. 

P.S: The Books and Online materials have been mentioned for the convenience of the students. You may read them online, or read the books available on the mentioned authors from your library for further study or buy the same online.